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TWENTY  YEARS 

AMONG 

OUR  HOSTILE  INDIANS. 

DESCRIBING 

THE  CHARACTERISTICS,  CUSTOMS,  HABITS,  RELIGION,  MARRIAGES,  DANCES  AND  BATTLES 

OF   THE 

WILD  INDIANS  IN  THEIR  NATURAL  STATE, 

TOGETHER   WITH   THE 

ENTRANCE  OF  CIVILIZATION  THROUGH  THEIR  HUNTING  GROUNDS, 

ALSO 

THE  FUR  COMPANIES.  OVERLAND  STAGE,  PONY  EXPRESS,  ELECTRIC  TELEGRAPH,  AND 
OTHER  PHASES  OF  LIFE  IN  THE  PATHLESS  REGIONS  OF  THE  WILD  WEST. 


BY 

J.  LEE  HUMFREVILLE, 

(Late  Captain  United  States  Cavalry.) 


FULLY  ILLUSTRATED  FROM  ORIGINAL  PHOTOGRAPHS. 


HUNTER  &  CO.,  PUBLISHERS, 

NEW  YORK. 


Copyrighted,  1899, 

BY 

J.  T.rett  HUMFREVILLR 


Ail  Bights  Reserved. 


78 


AUTHOR'S   PREFACE. 


TETON  SIOUX. 


OF  the  small  number  of  white  men  who 
were  on  the  Great  Plains,  or  in  the  mount- 
ains of  the  Far  West  many  years  ago, 
when  each  nation  of  Indians  in  its  prime- 
val state  occupied  its  own  territory  or 
hunting  ground,  very  few  are  left  who 
knew  the  Indian  in  his  absolutely  wild 
condition ;  and  as  none  of  them  have  de- 
scribed him  in  his  untutored  state,  as  he 
actually  lived  in  his  original  home,  I  have 
ventured  to  give  in  this  volume  some  of 
my  experiences  among  the  many  nations 
and  tribes  with  which  I  came  in  contact — • 
sometimes  in  friendly  intercourse,  often  in 

deadly  strife.  These  experiences  covered  a  period  of  twenty  years  immed- 
iately preceding  the  time  when  civilization  had  begun  to  exercise  an  influence 
over  their  manners  and  customs ;  during  this  time  I  knew  the  Indian  inti- 
mately, saw  Indian  life  in  all  its  phases,  and  had  abundant  opportunity  to 
study  Indian  character  thoroughly  and  exhaustively. 

My  twenty  years  of  life  among  the  Indians,  beginning  forty  years  ago, 
embraced  the  entire  territory  from  the  Saskatchewan  River  in  British 
America,  south  to  the  central  portion  of  Mexico,  and  from  the  Mississippi 
and  Sioux  Rivers  west  to  the  Pacific  Ocean,  which  area  covers,  as  the  reader 
knows,  a  large  portion  of  our  country's  vast  domain.  It  was  then,  except 
to  the  Indians  who  roamed  over  its  far-stretchiug  prairies  and  followed  the 
windings  of  its  rivers  and  streams,  or  climbed  its  mountain  heights  in  quest 
of  game,  almost  terra  incognita. 

It  seems  to  me,  therefore,  that  in  describing  the  characteristics,  habits, 
customs,  traits,  religion  and  mode  of  life  of  a  race  of  people  of  whose  orig- 


1932345 


xii  AUTHOR'S  PREFACE. 

inal  condition  comparatively  little  is  now  known  beyond  vague  traditions, 
fragmentary  descriptions,  and  more  frequently  untrustworthy  or  misleading 
reports,  that  I  might  interest  at  least  a  portion  of  the  present  generation,  as 
well  as  those  to  follow,  in  portraying  the  inner  life,  as  it  then  existed  of  a 
savage  people  who,  practically,  have  now  disappeared  forever. 

In  this  work  I  shall  endeavor  to  give  an  accurate  account  of  the  daily 
life  of  the  wild  Indians,  as  I  knew  them  in  their  .natural  state.  I  have  often 
been  impressed  with  the  fact  that,  both  in  their  character  and  manner  of  life, 
they  have  been  grossly  misrepresented  by  modern  writers,  many  of  whom 
evidently  depended  upon  vivid  imaginations  to  furnish  what  personal  experi- 
ence and  knowledge  could  not  supply.  The  Indian  as  a  wild  man  lived  in  a 
state  of  nature  and  followed  his  natural  impulses.  He  neither  dwelt  on  the 
past  nor  anticipated  the  future.  He  lived  solely  in  the  present,  and  his  life 
and  actions  were  controlled  by  the  primeval  laws  of  necessity.  Before  com- 
ing in  contact  with  the  white  man  he  had  neither  the  virtues  nor  the  vices  of 
civilization.  After  coming  in  contact  with  white  traders  and  others,  he  had 
all  the  vices  of  civilization  but  none  of  its  virtues.  The  first  thing  he 
learned  from  his  civilized  brother  was  his  vices;  these  he  acquired  and  re- 
tained with  wonderful  proficiency  and  tenacity,  and  instead  of  improving 
degenerated. 

In  the  following  chapters  I  shall  describe  the  Indian  as  he  was,  when  I 
first  knew  him,  at  which  time  he  was  absolutely  a  wild  man.  I  shall  en- 
deavor to  give  a  truthful  account  of  what  came  under  my  personal  experi- 
ence and  observation.  It  will  be  my  aim  to  state  the  truth  impartially,  and 
nothing  but  the  truth,  to  portray  the  Indian  of  fact,  and  not  the  Indian  of 
fiction.  If  my  experience  and  views  are  at  variance  with  preconceived  ideas 
of  wild  Indian  life  and  character,  my  readers  may  rest  assured  that  I  am 
testifying  to  what  I  have  seen  or  of  which  I  have  personal  knowledge,  un- 
less otherwise  stated. 

If  I  assert  that  I  know  as  much  of  Indian  life  and  character  as  any  man 
now  living,  the  reader  may  reasonably  ask  upon  what  I  base  so  pretentious 
a  claim.  My  answer  is  simple.  During  my  experience  with  the  many 
nations  and  tribes  with  which  the  duties  of  army  life  threw  me  in  contact,  I 
was  generally  protected  by  troops  or  other  armed  bodies  of  sufficient  strength 
to  enable  me  to  enter  Indian  camps  and  there  observe  the  inner  life  and  study 
the  character  of  the  Red  Man  in  comparative  safety. 

Some  apparent  repetitions  may  be  noticed  in  the  text;  but  the  reader  must 
not  forget  that  while  the  customs,  characteristics,  religious  belief,  and  per- 
sonal traits  of  the  Indian  nations  and  tribes  were  nearly  identical  in  many 


AUTHOR'S  PREFACE.  xiii 

respects,  yet  some  of  them  differed  in  a  variety  of  interesting  ways.  Hence 
in  portraying  the  everyday  life  of  so  many  nations  and  tribes,  I  could  not 
avoid  at  times  a  certain  sameness  of  ideas  and  expression,  which,  however,  is 
more  apparent  than  real.  I  have  also  briefly  described  some  noted  Indian 
massacres  and  battles,  because  they  illustrate  certain  phases  of  Indian  char- 
acter better  than  they  could  be  shown  in  any  other  way. 

The  reader  will  observe  that  I  use  the  words  nations  and  tribes  frequently, 
and  in  a  very  distinctive  manner.  This  I  do  for  the  following  reason  :  I 
class  as  nations  all  those  Indians  who  spoke  a  language  of  their  own;  and 
as  tribes,  those  bodies  that  formed  only  apart  of  a  nation.  A  band  of 
Indians,  as  they  were  known  on  the  frontier,  was  a  party  or  boJy  composed 
of  allied  nations  or  tribes,  which  might,  or  might  not,  speak  different  lan- 
guages or  dialects.  They  banded  together  for  specific  purposes,  and  when 
these  were  accomplished  they  separated,  each  nation  or  tribe  returning  to 
its  own  hunting  ground  or  territory. 

It  was  my  original  purpose  to  confine  this  volume  to  a  description  of  the 
wild  Indians  as  I  knew  them,  and  the  animals  upon  which  they  depended  for 
subsistence,  as  well  as  those  they  killed  for  pelts  for  barter  with  white 
traders;  these  animals  at  that  time  roamed  over  the  plains  and  mountains 
in  countless  numbers,  but  like  their  pursuers  have  almost  entirely  disap- 
peared. 

There  were  other  phases  of  life  in  the  almost  pathless  West  at  the  time  I 
was  there,  which  deserve  mention.  These  were  the  Pony  Express,  Overland 
Stage  and  Fur  Companies,  all  of  which  are  things  of  the  past.  I  have  given  a 
brief  description  of  them,  as  well  as  an  account  of  a  few  famous  mountain- 
eers, trappers,  and  guides,  who  spent  their  lives  among  the  savages.  They 
were  at  that  time  as  much  a  part  of  the  Wild  West  as  the  Indians  them- 
selves, and  it  was  they  who  paved  the  way  for  civilization  as  it  trended 
westward,  at  the  imminent  peril  of  their  own  lives. 


i    I  *n, 

if{w*v4riw^ 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER   I. 

THE  PATHLESS  WEST  OF  YEARS  AGO— THE  NATURAL  HOME  OF  OUR  SAVAGE 
INDIANS— ROVERS  AND  FIGHTERS. 

PAGE 

The  Natural  Home  of  the  Indians — Their  Numbers  when  I  first  knew  them — Their 
Superstition  against  being  counted — Keeping  a  Roster  of  their  Fighting  Men — 
The  Terrible  Scourge  of  Small-pox — Indian  Dread  of  this  Disease — Leaving  the 
Afflicted  to  Suffer  and  Die — An  Imposing  Body  of  Warriors — A  Treacherous  and 
Vicious  Lot — Visiting  the  Great  Father  at  Washington — Stories  told  by  them  on 
their  Return — Starting  a  War  Party 45 

CHAPTER  II. 

THE  COURAGE  AND  FIGHTING  QUALITIES  OF  THE  WILD  INDIANS— FOES  THAT 
ASKED  AND  GAVE  NO  QUARTER, 

Going  into  Battle — How  the  Indians  Planned  a  Massacre — Methods  of  Surprising 
their  Enemies — How  we  Defended  Ourselves  against  Sudden  Attacks — Descrip- 
tion of  a  Real  Battle  with  Indians — Hardships  of  an  Indian  Campaign — Indian 
Courage  and  Ferocity  in  Battle — Personal  Experiences — How  we  Felt  in  an  In- 
dian Battle — Nerved  to  Desperation — Mounted  Indian  Warriors — Their  Per- 
sonal Appearance  and  Peculiar  Fighting  Tactics — Fight  to  the  Death — Giving 
and  Asking  no  Quarter — Pursuing  the  Indians — Indian  Wiles  and  Treachery 
— A  Lurking  Foe — Indian  War  Horses — How  the  Indians  Scalped  their  Enemies 
on  the  Battlefield — Burial  of  the  Bodies  of  Troopers — Burial  of  Indians  who 
Fell  in  Battle — Mourning  for  the  Slain — The  Safest  Place  after  a  Massacre 50 

CHAPTER  III. 

THE    INDIAN'S   MENTAL    FACULTIES— HIS    PERFECT    PHYSICAL    SENSES    AND 
BLUNTED  MORAL  NATURE— HIS  GREAT  CRUELTY- 
SCALPS  AND  SCALPING. 

The  Indian's  Preternatural  Cunning  and  Stunted  Intelligence — His  Highly  Devel- 
oped Physical  Senses — His  Perfect  Vision  and  Acute  Hearing — Vanishing  like 
an  Apparition — His  Keenness  in  following  a  Trail — His  Untiring  Patience — H^s 
Intractable  Nature — His  Instinctive  Cruelty — His  Suspicious  and  Distrustful 


CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

Nature — His  Duplicity — Rarely  to  be  Trusted — The  Indian  of  Fiction,  and  the 
Indian  of  Fact — Indian  Orators — Indian  Languages — The  Fate  of  Indian  Female 
Captives — A  Living  Death — How  Indians  Computed  Time — Mourning  for  their 
Dead — Return  of  a  War  Party — How  the  Indian  Scalped  his  Foe — Customs  in 
regard  to  Scalp-Taking — Jerking  the  Scalp  from  the  Skull — Looking  for  Nits — 
How  to  tell  an  Indian's  Scalp  — Curing  a  Scalp — A  Ghastly  Spectacle 55 

CHAPTER  IV. 

INDIAN    SMOKES    AND    SMOKERS— QUEER    CUSTOMS    AND    SUPERSTITIONS- 
HOW  ANIMALS  WERE  AFFECTED  BY  THE   UN- 
SEEN PRESENCE  OF  INDIANS. 

Method  of  Dressing  and  Decorating  the  Hair — The  Scalp  Lock — Keeping  It  Greased, 
Smooth,  and  Shiny — Combs  made  from  Weeds — Curious  Ornamentations — A 
Beardless  Race — Manner  of  Smoking  the  Indian  Pipe — Method  of  Lighting  the 
Pipe — Indian  Surprise  on  First  Seeing  Matches — Smoking  and  Praying  to  Two 
Great  Spirits,  the  Good  and  the  Bad  God — Queer  Superstitions — Killikinick,  or 
Indian  Tobacco — Method  of  Preparing  It  for  Smoking — Its  Strong  and  Lasting 
Odor — How  Animals  Detected  the  Approach  of  Indians  in  the  Night — Olfactory 
Sensitiveness  of  Horses  and  Mules — Smelling  Indians  at  a  Long  Distance — Red 
Pipestone — Curious  Legend  as  to  its  Origin — The  Intermingling  of  the  Blood  of 
Whites  and  Indians — Pipe  Ornamentation — A  Marvel  of  Beauty — A  Neutral 
Ground  for  all  Indian  Nations — Prehistoric  Gatherings 61 

CHAPTER  V. 

INDIAN    INQUISITIVENESS   AND    CUNNING— CRUEL    TREATMENT    OF    PRISON- 
ERS—THE FATE  OF  WHITE  CAPTIVE  WOMEN. 

Indian  Habits  and  Customs — Marvelous  Instinct  of  the  Indian — His  Inquisitiveness — 
No  Idea  of  Morality,  or  of  Right  and  Wrong — Power  of  the  Chief — The  Medicine 
Man — Making  Medicine — Medicine  Horses  and  Medicine  Dogs — How  the  Women 
made  Medicine — The  Medicines  of  Different  Nations  and  Tribes — How  and  why 
they  were  selected — Women  standing  in  Cold  Water  while  making  Medicine — 
Cutting  their  Arms  and  Legs  with  a  Knife — The  Greater  the  Scar,  the  Greater 
the  Medicine — Striking  the  Water  with  their  Hands  and  Feet — Broken  Medi- 
cine— Treatment  of  Prisoners — Captive  Indian  Wome  n — A  Living  Death An 

Incident  on  Green  River — Indian  Treatment  of  White  Captive  Women 68 

CHAPTER  VI. 

THE  INDIANS'  STRANGE  IDEAS  OF  THE  HEAVENS— INDIAN  CAMPS— SIGNIFI- 
CANCE OF  SIGNS— WONDERFUL  SKILL  IN  TRAILING— 
THE   INDIAN  AS   A  PLAINSMAN. 

The  Milky  Way— Composed  of  the  Shadows  of  Departed  Spirits— The  Road  of  De- 
parted Spirits— Their  Idea  of  Thunder  and  Lightning— The  Aurora  Borealis— 
Lighting  the  Road  of  the  Spirits  to  the  Happy  Hunting  Ground— Reverence  for  the 
Dead— Placing  the  Dead  in  Trees— Providing  Food  for  the  Spirits  to  eat— Final 


CONTENTS.  XV11 

PAGE 

Departure  of  the  Spirits  from  the  Corpse — Indian  Camps — Surrounded  by  Filth 
— Broken  Bones — Care  of  Wounds — Indian  Fortitude — No  Regular  Time  for 
Eating  or  Sleeping — How  they  set  their  Lodges  and  made  their  Camps — Drinking 
Dirty  'Water — Signs — Everything  a  Sign  to  an  Indian — The  most  important 
Thing  to  all  Indians — Skill  in  Trailing — Punishment  for  Crimes— Lack  of  Mus- 
cular Strength — No  Match  for  the  White  Man  in  Personal  Encounter 74 

CHAPTER  VII. 

HOW  INDIANS   COOKED  AND  ATE— THEIR  LOVE   OF   FINERY  AND   PERSONAL 
ADORNMENT— PAINTING  THEIR  FACES  AND  BODIES- 
MAKING  A  WILL—  PLAINSCRAFT. 

Cooking  Pots  made  of  Fresh  Hides — Eating  Raw  Meat  from  newly-slain  Animals — 
A  Meal  twenty-four  hours  long — A  Daily  Gorge — Insatiable  Appetites — First- 
class  Gluttons — Eating  Skins  andMoccasins — Their  first  Coffee — Indian  Improv- 
idence— A  Chief's  Powers  and  Limitations — The  Chief  in  Camp  and  on  the  War- 
path— Forming  a  new  Tribe — The  Survival  of  the  Fittest — Love  of  Ornament — 
Fondness  for  Soldiers'  cast-off  Uniforms  and  High  Hats — Aversion  to  wearing 
Trousers — Fashion  of  Painting  the  Face  and  Body — Indian  Dandies — Indian 
Artists — How  an  Indian  made  his  Will — Distribution  of  Property  before  Death — 
Reading  the  Signs  of  an  Abandoned  Camp — Plainscraf t 79 

CHAPTER  VIII. 

INDIAN   WOOING   AND   MARRIAGE    CUSTOMS— BIRTH   OF   AN   INDIAN    BABY- 
INDIAN  WIDOWS  AND  WIDOWHOOD— NIGHT  IN  AN  INDIAN  LODGE. 

How  an  Indian  Secured  a  Wife — Price  of  an  Indian  Maiden — Daily  Occupations  in 
the  Lodge — Life  in  the  Camp — The  Birth  of  a  Child — Indian  Babies — How  they 
were  cared  for — Endurance  of  Indian  Women — On  Hand  for  the  Promised  Pres- 
ent— How  Indian  Babies  were  Cradled — Indian  Widows — Weeping  and  Wailing 
at  the  Burial  Place — Genuine  Grief — Married  Women  Slaves — Female  Occupa- 
tions— How  the  Family  Lived — Punishments  for  Infidelity — Mourning  for  the 
Dead  — A  Widow's  Weeds — Care  and  Affection  for  the  Aged — Choosing  a  Name — 
How  Names  were  Selected — Life  in  the  Lodge — No  Privacy,  and  little  Decency 
Observed — The  Indian's  Affection  for  his  Wife  and  Children — Dying  of  Homesick- 
ness— An  Indian  Elopement .' 90 

CHAPTER  IX. 

INDIAN    AMUSEMENTS    AND    PASTIMES— THEIR    THIRST      FOR      GAMBLING— 
THEIR   GAMES    OF   SKILL   AND   CHANCE— EXPERTNESS 
IN  THROWING  A  KNIFE. 

The  Indian's  Limited  Amusements — Horse-racing  the  Favorite  Pastime — Betting  on 
the  Results — \Vomen  Gamblers — Ball  Playing — Skill  of  the  Players — How  the 
Game  was  Played — Proficiency  in  Running  and  Jumping — Skill  in  Throwing  the 
Knife — Indian  Music  and  Musical  Instruments — Serenading  Dusky  Maidens — 
The  Romance  of  Indian  Youth — Admiring  Himself  in  Nature's  Looking-glass — 
Lack  of  Amusements  and  Pastimes  in  Winter .  .  98 


xviii  CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

CHAPTEK  X. 

INDIAN    WOMEN    TANNERS— THE    MAKING    OF    AN    INDIAN    LODGE— INDIAN 
ART  AND  ARTISTS— AN  INDIAN  VILLAGE  ON  THE  MOVE. 

Indian  Tepees  and  Camps — How  Lodge  Covers  were  made — Lodge  Poles — Erecting 
Lodges — The  Entrance — Suffering  from  Cold — Going  Barefoot  in  the  Snow — 
Decorating  the  Lodge  Cover — Deeds  of  Valor  recorded  in  Picture  Writing — Some 
well  Executed  Drawings — Going  to  bed  with  their  Clothes  on — Interior  Arrange- 
ment of  a  Lodge — Expert  Horsewomen — Dexterity  in  throwing  the  Lasso — Pack- 
ing the  Animals — The  Travois — Adjusting  the  Pack — How  the  Old,  Infirm,  and 
Children  were  Transported — A  Village  on  the  Move — A  Strange  Sight — Crossing 
Streams — Clothing  that  was  never  Cleansed — A  Filthy  Race — The  Art  of  Pack- 
ing Animals — How  Pack  Animals  were  prevented  from  lying  down 101 

CHAPTEE   XL 

THE   SIGN  LANGUAGE— ITS   MYSTERIOUS    ORIGIN   AND    SIGNIFICANCE— COM- 
MUNICATION   BY    SIGNALS. 

Indian  Languages — Their  Strange  Diversity — No  two  Indian  Nations  known  to  Con- 
verse in  the  Language  of  the  Other — The  Sign  Language — Its  Mysterious  Origin 
— The  Arapaho,  Sioux,  Cheyenne,  and  Navajo  Languages — Significance  of  the 
Sign  Language — Sign  Language  by  Horse  Riding — The  Sign  Language  of  the 
Hands — Difficult  Sentence  in  the  Sign  Language — An  Incident  in  my  own  Experi- 
ence— Sign  Language  by  Movements  of  the  Horse — Sign  Language  by  the  Mirror 
— Sign  Language  by  Smoke — Communicating  at  Long  Distance — How  an  Indian 
Wrote  a  Letter — Hieroglyphics  on  the  Faces  of  Rocks  in  Texas — Rude  Drawing 
in  Caves — Difficulty  of  Intrepreting  them 108 

CHAPTEE  XII. 

THE   INDIAN   AS   A   FIGHTER— HIS   BRAVERY   AND   CONTEMPT   OF   DEATH— A 
CUNNING,  STEALTHY,  AND  TREACHEROUS  FOE. 

Born  Fighters — The  Indian's  Contempt  of  Death — His  Great  Courage — Fighting  and 
Hunting  His  only  Occupations — Not  easily  Surprised  or  Ambushed — Indian 
Method  of  Preparing  for  Battle — Return  of  a  War  Party — Re-enacting  the  War- 
like Scene — Treatment  of  Captives — Prolonging  the  Torture — Effect  of  Firearms 
on  the  Primeval  Indian — How  the  Indian  first  secured  Firearms — Horse-stealing 
considered  a  Virtue — Indian  Lack  of  Inventiveness — Articles  that  have  never  been 
improved  on — The  Snowshoe,  Moccasin,  Tepee,  and  Bow  and  Arrow — Great 
Buoyancy  of  their  Canoes 113 

CHAPTEE  XIII. 

THE   INDIAN'S   NATURAL   WEAPONS    AND    HOW    HE   USED    THEM— TEACHING 
YOUNG  BRAVES  INDIAN  WARFARE. 

Indian  Weapons  of  War  and  of  the  Chase — The  Indian  War  Club — The  Tomahawk 

The   Scalping   Knife— The   Lance   and   Shield — The   Bow   and   Arrow — How   they 


CONTENTS.  XIX 

PAGE 

were  made — Dexterity  of  the  Indian  in  the  Use  of  the  Bow — His  Lack  of  Pro- 
ficiency in  the  Use  of  Modern  Firearms — His  Limited  Use  of  Tools — Boys  Prac- 
ticing with  Bow  and  Arrow — Securing  their  first  Firearms — The  Indian  not  a 
Good  Rifle  Shot — Sham  Battles — A  Realistic  and  Exciting  Exhibition — Their 
Decorations  and  Equipment — How  the  Young  Brave  Acquired  a  Knowledge  of 
War — Dexterity  in  Rescuing  their  Wounded  during  Battle — His  thorough  Mas- 
tery of  his  Horse 118 

CHAPTER  XIV. 

AN   INDIAN   DOG     FEAST— FINGERS     VERSUS      FORKS— AN   INDIAN     DINNER 
PARTY— PERSONAL   EXPERIENCES. 

Why  the  Indians  were  Nomadic — A  Dog  Feast — Cooked  in  its  Skin  with  the  Hair 
on — How  the  Favorite  Dish  Tastes — Its  Peculiar  Flavor — Giving  a  Dinner  to  a 
Famous  Chief — Astonished  Indians — Eating  all  Night — Indians  with  "Good 
Hearts" — A  Perfect  Gorge — Eating  with  their  Fingers — Refusing  to  use  Knives 
and  Forks — A  Delicate  Meal — Speech  of  a  Great  Chief — "Wacpominie" — What  it 
consisted  of — Old-Man-Afraid-of-His-Horses — An  Embarrassment  of  Riches — 
Some  Valuable  Presents — Disagreeable  Pests — Manner  of  Ridding  Skins  of  Ver- 
min— A  Pertinent  Conversation  with  a  Chief  and  his  Significant  Reply — The 
Grossest  Insult  known  to  the  Sioux 124 

CHAPTER  XV. 

BURIAL   OF   THE   DEAD— STRANGE   FUNERAL   RITES   AND   CEREMONIES— THE 
INDIAN'S  IDEA  OF  THE  FUTURE  STATE— LIFE  IN  THE  SPIRIT  LAND. 

Funeral  Ceremonies — Burial  of  a  Chief — Last  Rites — Final  Resting-Place  of  their 
Important  Personages — Buried  in  a  Sitting  Posture — Scaffolds  on  which  the  Dead 
were  placed — How  they  were  thrown  down  by  Buffalo — Taken  by  the  Whites  for 
Fuel — Killing  Animals  at  the  Funeral — Women  and  Female  Children  buried  in 
various  ways — Dead  Bodies  eaten  by  Carnivorous  Animals  and  Birds  of  Prey — 
Intolerable  Stench  at  an  Indian  Burial-Place — Journey  of  the  Soul  to  the  Spirit  Land 
— The  Indian's  Inability  to  Compute  Time — Feeding  the  Soul  during  its  Jour- 
ney— Belief  that  the  Spirit  left  the  Body  through  the  Mouth—Why  Indians 
Mutilated  the  Slain  Bodies  of  Enemies — Execution  of  Big  Foot,  Black  Crow,  and 
others  by  hanging  in  Chains — Death  in  its  most  Dreaded  Form 128 

CHAPTER  XVI. 

THE    GREAT    SIOUX   NATION— A    FIERCE    AND   WARLIKE    PEOPLE— LIFE   AND 

SCENES  AMONG  THEM. 

One  of  the  Largest  and  Most  Warlike  of  Indian  Nations — Old-Man-Afraid-of-His 
Horses — A  Noted  Chief — How  he  acquired  his  Name — How  he  became  Famous 
— When  and  how  a  Brave  could  change  his  Name — A  Nation  of  Meat  Eaters — 
Their  Manner  of  Cooking  and  Eating — The  Universal  Dirty  Cooking  Pot — A  Vora- 
cious Sioux — Drinking  Dish  Water — Why  Indians  were  constantly  on  the  Move — 
Always  at  War  with  their  Neighbors — Why  they  had  no  Intoxicating  Liquors — 


XX  CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

Insulting  an  Indian  by  asking  his  Name — Indian  Vulgarity — Indian  Mothers-in- 
law — HOW  they  were  regarded — An  Indian  Forlorn  Hope — An  Alliance  that 
meant  Death  and  Destruction — Splendid  Horsemanship — The  Stone  Bath — Prac- 
tice of  Voodooism — Heroic  Treatment — Wealthy  Indians — Many  Ceremonies — 
Demonstrative  Love — No  Social  Castes — Dog  Soldiers — Widely  Separated  Tribes 
— Superstitious  fear  of  Hailstorms 136 

CHAPTEE  XVII. 

STILL     AMONG    THE    SIOUX— THE    MANDAXS— INDIAN    FREE    MASONS— THE 

ASSINIBOINS— THE  GROS  VENTRES,  OR  THE  BIG  BELLIES, 

CUISSES  BRULES  OR  BURNT  THIGHS. 

The  Mandans — Their  Interesting  History — Nearly  Exterminated  by  Small-Pox — 
Indian  Free  Masons — A  Great  Mystery — How  did  they  Acquire  a  Knowledge  of 
the  Order? — Their  Pastimes — The  Buffalo  Dance — Manner  of  Disposing  of  their 
Dead — How  the  Skulls  of  their  Dead  were  Used — Their  Happy  Domestic  Life — 
The  Assiniboins — Their  Hunting  Ground — A  Far  Northern  Tribe  of  Indians — 
Their  Characteristics  and  Customs — Scourged  by  Small-Pox — The  Gros  Ventres, 
or  Big  Bellies — Origin  of  the  Name — The  Brules — Battle  of  Ash  Hollow — The 
Ogalalas — Their  Country — The  Bad  Faces — The  Yankton  Sioux — Their  Hunting 
Ground — The  Minneconjoux — A  Savage  Tribe — Their  Hunting  Ground —  The 
Uncpapas — A  Fierce  Tribe — Where  they  Lived — The  Kaws,  or  Kansas — The  Win- 
nebagoes — The  Poncas — The  Omahas — The  Osages — The  Quapaws,  or  Arkansas — 
The  Otoes — The  lowas 153 

CHAPTER  XVIII. 

THE  COMANCHES— FIERCE  TRIBES  OF  THE   SHOSHONEE  NATION— GUARDING 
AGAINST  AMBUSH  AND  SURPRISE— THRILLING  INCIDENTS. 

Where  the  Comanches  Lived — A  Fierce  and  Implacable  Foe — A  Terror  to  all  Settlers — 
Alliance  with  the  Apaches — Bloody  Raids — A  Mexican  Bandit  Leader  and  his  Fol- 
lowers— A  Lot  of  Murderous  Renegades — The  Comanches  Receive  their  First 
Chastisement — Attack  on  Fort  Lancaster — Soldiers  Lassoed  while  Guarding  their 
Herds — Carried  Away  and  Murdered — Carrying  the  Mail  through  a  Hostile  Coun- 
try in  a  Concord  Buggy — Cruel  Fate  of  the  Driver  and  Guard — The  Wagon  Train 
—Vast  Sums  in  Gold  and  Silver  Carried  through  a  Hostile  Country — How  the 
Trains  Were  Waylaid — Horrible  Fate  of  a  Wounded  Trainman — Guarding  against 
Surprise 174 

CHAPTER  XIX. 

THE  COMANCHES  CONTINUED— PUNISHMENT  INFLICTED  ON  THEIR  WOMEN- 
STEALING  CONSIDERED  A  FINE  ART. 

Comanche  Home  Life — A  Nation  of  Thieves — Polygamy  common  among  them — Miser- 
able Women — Never  known  to  Marry  outside  of  their  own  People — What  made 
them  unusually  Virtuous — Severe  Penalty  for  Unfaithfulness — Slitting  the  Nose 
— Self-inflicted  Wounds— Mourning  for  the  Dead — Superstitious  Healing  of  the 


CONTENTS.  XXI 

PAGE 

Sick — Their  Medicines — Curing  the  Bite  of  a  Rattlesnake — Capturing  Wild 
Horses — Killing  Wild  Turkeys — Their  Scanty  Clothing— A  Filthy  and  Repulsive 
People — Feats  of  Horsemanship — Cutting  the  Hamstring  of  a  Running  Animal — 
Mothers  at  Twelve  Years  of  Age — Making  up  a  Party  for  Plunder  and  Pillage — Living 
in  Rocks  and  Caves — Expert  Thieves — Stealing  considered  a  Mark  of  Honor 181 

CHAPTER  XX. 

THE      APACHES— APPALLING      RECORD— THEIR      STEALTH      AND      CUNNING. 

In  the  Country  of  the  Apaches — Shaving  off  the  Nose  of  a  Woman — Horrible  Mutila- 
tions— Apache  Depredations — The  Ishmaelites  of  all  Men — Their  Repulsive  and 
Hideous  Appearance — Their  Small  and  Peculiar  Feet — Painting  Themselves  with 
Mud — An  Unspeakably  Dirty  People — Swarming  with  Vermin — Murderous  War- 
riors— Art  of  Concealing  their  Persons — How  they  Made  Themselves  Resemble  a 
Rock — Looking  like  a  Bunch  of  Grass — Mistaken  for  a  Bush  or  Shrub — Their 
Stealth  and  Cunning — On  the  Warpath — Return  of  a  War  Party — Thievish  and 
Cruel  Propensities — An  Appalling  Record — Driving  Out  Ten  Thousand  Settlers — 
Hiding  in  the  Dense  Jungles 187 

CHAPTER  XXI. 

THE  APACHES   CONTINUED— ELUSIVE,   CUNNING  AND   DARING  INDIANS— EX- 
PERT TRAIL  FOLLOWERS— INDIAN  LIFE  IN  TEXAS, 
NEW  MEXICO,  AND  ARIZONA. 

Expert  Trailers — Detecting  Signs — Concealing  their  own  Trail — Their  Cunning  in 
eluding  Pursuit — Apache  Cruelty  to  Captives — Fate  of  Captive  White  Boys  and 
Girls — How  the  Apaches  Lived — Great  Aversion  to  Telling  their  Names — Queer 
Superstitions — Burying  their  Dead  at  Night — Their  Fear  of  a  Dead  Body — Trav- 
eling One  Hundred  Miles  a  Day  on  Foot — Marvelous  Endurance — Victorious  in 
Capturing  Trains — Raiding  Settlers — Bones  of  Victims — An  Able  but  Vicious 
Chief — The  Deadly  Fear  He  Inspired — Attacking  Ranch  and  Cattle  Men — Dread- 
ful Fate  of  a  Mexican  Captive — Stripped,  and  Staked  out  on  the  Ground  over  an 
Ant  Hill — A  Horrible  Death — Midnight  Groans  and  Screams — The  Story  of  a 
Noted  Chief's  First  Raid  as  Told  by  Himself 192 

CHAPTER  XXII. 
THE  MYSTERIOUS  UTES— THEIR  SECRET  CUSTOMS  AND  QUEER  DOINGS. 

The  Mysterious  Utes — A  Part  of  the  Great  Shoshonee  Nation — Their  Fierce  Encoun- 
ters with  their  Neighbors — A  Wandering  Tribe — Rarely  Defeated — Small,  Black, 
Strong  and  Vicious — Constantly  on  the  Warpath — Their  Home  Life — Their  Pov- 
erty— Filthy  Indians  and  Dirty  Lodges — A  Lazy  People — The  Most  Secretive  of 
all  Indians — Their  One  Great  Peculiarity — Profound  Secrecy — Secret  Burial — 
The  Mysterious  Grave  of  a  Ute — Where  Did  they  Bury  their  Dead? — Death  of 
the  Head  of  the  Family — Destruction  of  his  Property — Birth  of  a  Child — Treating 
the  Sick — Their  Food.  Clothing,  and  Arms — Eating  Rats.  Mice,  Crickets  and 
Snakes — The  Pah-Utes  and  the  Pi-Utes — A  Miserable  Lot  of  Red  Men.  .  .  200 


CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

CHAPTER  XXIII. 

THE  SNAKES  AND  ROOT  DIGGERS— INTERESTING  AND  PECULIAR  TRIBE- 
LOAFERS  AND  GAMBLERS. 

The  Snakes  a  Part  of  the  Shoshonee  Nation — An  Interesting  Tribe — Their  Hunting 
Ground — Afflicted  with  Goitre — Necks  Larger  than  their  Heads — Their  Great 
Enmity  with  the  Cheyennes,  Blackfeet  and  Sioux — A  Crafty,  Treacherous  Tribe 
— Their  Fiendish  Cruelty  to  Prisoners — How  they  Secured  Firearms — Manner  of 
Wearing  their  Hair — Their  Poverty — Securing  Wild  Horses — Their  Expertness  as 
Boatmen — Description  of  a  Bull-Boat — Ingenuity  of  the  Snakes — Manner  of 
Catching  Fish — Lazy  Fishermen — Their  Expertness  in  the  Use  of  the  Sign  Lan- 
guage— Communication  by  Means  of  Horses,  Fire,  and  Smoke — The  Bannocks, 
or  Root  Diggers — A  Miserable  People — Loafers  and  Gamblers 207 

CHAPTER  XXIV. 

THE  DIGGER  INDIANS— OUTCASTS  OF  OTHER    TRIBES— THE  LOWEST  OF  THE 

LOW. 

How  the  Diggers  Acquired  their  Name — A  Conglomerate  Lot — Living  on  Roots  and 
Burrowing  in  Holes — The  Lowest  in  Intelligence  and  most  Degraded  of  all 
Indians — Only  one  Remove  from  Apes — Their  Repulsive  Apppearance — Extraor- 
dinary Voracity — Surrounding  the  Carcass  of  a  Horse — Leaving  Nothing 
but  its  Bones — Selling  their  Children  to  Obtain  Food — Living  together  in 
Herds — Below  the  Level  of  Beasts — Going  Entirely  Naked  in  Summer — Living 
on  Insects  and  Reptiles — The  Personification  of  all  that  is  Low  and  Vile — Their 
Filthy  Lodges — Living  in  Caves — A  Tribe  of  Vermin  Eaters — Their  Gaunt, 
Half-Famished  Dogs — Ignorance  of  the  Sign  Language — Marriage  Unknown 
among  Them — Eating  Raw  Fish — Ostracized  by  Every  One — How  a  Sick  Digger 
was  Taken  Care  of — His  Fate  after  Death 213 

CHAPTER  XXV. 

THE      BLACKFEET— THE      SMALL-POX      EPIDEMIC— APPALLING      SCENES      OF 

DEATH  AND  DESOLATION— A  CAMP  OF  HUMAN 

BONES  AND  DESERTED  LODGES. 

The  Blackfeet  Indians — How  they  -got  their  Name — Their  Country — The  Neighbors 
with  whom  they  were  at  War— The  Piegans,  Bloods,  and  Gros  Ventres  of  the 
Prairie — Their  Standing  Grudge  against  the  American  Fur  Companies Trap- 
ping under  Difficulties — How  Trappers  Protected  themselves  against  the  In- 
dians—Unwritten Laws  of  the  Blackfeet— Their  Superstition  against  Fish— Their 
Religious  Beliefs  and  Burial  Ceremonies — Flight  of  the  Spirit— Manner  of  Feed- 
ing the  Spirit— The  Dual  Spirit— Carrying  out  Dreams— The  Small-Pox  Epidemic 
—How  it  Gained  a  Foothold— Fearful  Ravages— How  they  Treated  this  Dread 
Disease— Fifteen  Hundred  Lodges  and  their  Dead  Abandoned— Appalling  Scenes  of 
Death  and  Desolation — Small-Pox  Corpses  Eaten  by  Wolves 217 


CONTENTS.  XX111 

PAGE 

CHAPTEK  XXVI. 

THE  CROWS,  OR  UPSORUKA  AS  THEY   CALLED  THEMSELVES— JAMES   BECK- 
WOURTH,  THE  FAMOUS  MULATTO  FRONTIERSMAN- 
LIFE   AMONG   THE   CROWS. 

The  Crows — Driven  out  by  the  Sioux — A  Skulking,  Thievish  Race — A  Tall  and  Ath- 
letic People — Their  Flowing  Hair — The  Crow  W7omen — How  the  Crows  Attacked 
Trappers  and  Traders — Murdering  Entire  Expeditions — Night  Attacks — The 
Home  of  the  Beaver,  Otter,  and  other  Fur-Bearing  Animals — The  Famous 
Mulatto  Trapper,  Jim  Beckwourth — His  Alliance  with  the  Crows — His  Great 
Influence  among  Them — His  Return  to  St.  Louis  and  Supposed  Death — Effect  of 
the  Rumor  on  the  Crows — A  Bloody  Tragedy  Averted — Reappearance  of  Beck- 
wourth— A  Brave  and  Sagacious  Man — A  Warrior  Race — Bitterness  between  the 
Crows  and  Sioux — What  Happens  after  Death 224 

CHAPTER  XXVII. 

THE  FLATHEADS— HOW  THEY  GOT  THEIR  NAME— PECULIAR  CUSTOMS— FLAT- 
TENING HEADS  OF  CHILDREN  A  MARK  OF  BEAUTY. 

The  Flatheads — Their  Peculiar  Language — Their  Habitations,  Food,  and  Clothing — 
How  the  Women  gathered  Camas — Peculiar  Manner  of  Cooking  it — How  they 
caught  Wild  Horses — Manner  of  catching  Fish — Bone  Fish-hooks — How  they 
Cooked  Fish — Fine  Boatmen — How  the  Flatheads  got  their  Name — Manner  of 
Flattening  the  Heads — A  Peculiar  Custom — Position  of  a  Child  during  the  Pro- 
cess— Appearance  of  the  Head  having  been  Flattened — A  Deformity  that  was 
Considered  a  Mark  of  Beauty 231 

CHAPTER  XXVIII. 

THE  KIOWAS— A  PART  OF  THE  SHOSHONEE  NATION— BRAVE,  TREACHEROUS 
AND  CUNNING— SOME  FAMOUS  CHIEFS— RAIDS  AND  WARS. 

The  Kiowas — Part  of  the  Shoshonee  Family — Originally  from  the  Far  North — Hunt- 
ing Ground  in  the  Black  Hills — Driven  Out  by  the  Sioux — Their  Last  Home — 
Characteristics  of  the  Kiowas — A  Murderous  People — Treacherous,  Cunning  and 
Vicious — Stealing  from  each  other — How  Stolen  Property  was  Returned — Med- 
icine Men — Death  of  Santanta — Raids  into  Mexico — Their  Alliances — Their  Per- 
sonal Appearance ' 235 

CHAPTER  XXIX. 

THE  BRAVE  AND  WARLIKE  CHEYENNES— THE  FINEST  BODY  OF  SAVAGES  IN 

THE  WORLD— THEIR  SINGULAR  FRIENDSHIP  FOR 

THE  ARAPAHOES— BLOODY  AND  COSTLY 

WARS  WITH  THE  WHITES. 

A  Brave  and  Intelligent  People — Manner  of  Caring  for  their  Hair — A  Nation  of  War- 
riors— Expertness  of  Cheyenne  Women  in  Handiwork — Religious  Belief  of  the 
Cheyennes — Their  Dances  and  Ceremonies — Their  Language — Their  Alliance  with 


CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

the  Sioux  and  Arapahoes — Their  Attacks  on  Emigrant  Trains — Treaties  with  the 
Government— Broken  Faith  followed  by  Fierce  and  Bloody  Battles— The  Chiv- 
ington  Massacre— A  Bloody  and  Costly  War— Nearly  Forty  Million  Dollars 
Spent  in  Fighting  the  Cheyennes — Their  Home  Life — Peculiar  Marriage  Customs 
—Treatment  of  their  Wives  and  Children— Their  Singular  Friendship  with  the 
Arapahoes — A  Friendship  that  has  never  been  explained — Burial  of  the  Dead — 
Their  Lodges — Primitive  Weapons — Symbols  used  by  them — The  Northern 
Cheyennes • 24^ 

CHAPTER  XXX. 

THE  DIRTY  AND  POVERTY-STRICKEN  ARAPAHOES— A  SHIFTLESS  AND  LAZY 
PEOPLE— HOW    THEY    LIVED— BEGGARS,    MENIALS,    AND    THIEVES. 

Where  did  the  Arapahoes  come  from? — Obscurity  of  their  Origin — A  Lazy  People — 
Their  Habits,  Characteristics,  Customs,  and  Language — A  Filthy  Lot — Their 
Strange  Friendship  for  the  Cheyennes — Brutal  Treatment  of  their  Wives — 
Menials  and  Thieves  for  the  Cheyennes — The  Vilest  of  Beggars — Begging  and 
Stealing  for  a  Living — Unable  to  Speak  their  own  Language — A  Language  rarely 
Acquired  by  a  White  Man — Their  Poor  Weapons  for  War  and  the  Chase — Too 
Lazy  to  Fish — How  they  Made  their  Clothing — Swarming  with  Vermin — Disgust- 
ing Habits— A  Wretched  Existence 251 

CHAPTEE  XXXI. 

CLIFF  DWELLERS— THE  NAVAJOES  AND  THEIR  COUNTRY— THE  TONKAWAYS 
—THEIR  WARS  AND  WANDERINGS— CANNIBALISM  AMONG  THE   INDIANS. 

How  the  Navajoes  Resembled  White  Men  in  their  Habits — A  Tribe  of  Cliff  Dwellers — 
Their  Famous  Blankets — Their  Handiwork  and  Skill — Horsehair  Lariats — Beauti- 
ful Earthen  Ware — How  they  Purified  and  Cooled  Water — How  the  Cactus  was 
used  for  Clearing  Water — Peculiarity  of  the  Cactus  Leaf — Personal  Apppearance 
of  the  Navajoes — Children  Adepts  in  Throwing  the  Lasso — An  Expert  Indian  Lad 
of  Ten — His  Feats  with  the  Lasso — Catching  a  Dog  by  either  Leg — The  Navajoe 
in  his  Family — A  Model  Indian — Deserted  Dwellings — The  Tonkaways — A  Rem- 
nant of  a  once  Powerful  People — Their  Vague  Traditions — Their  Wars  and  Wan- 
derings— A  Cannibal  Race — Killing  and  Eating  their  Prisoners 255 

CHAPTER  XXXII. 

THE   PUEBLOS   AND   ZUNIS— HIDEOUSLY   UGLY   GODS   AND   IDOLS— CUSTOMS 

OF  A  STRANGE  PEOPLE. 

Where  did  they  come  from? — Why  did  they  keep  to  themselves? — Supposed  to  be 
Christians,  but  in  reality  Heathen — Their  Ugly  Idols — A  Mooted  Question — Why 
they  were  made  so  Ugly — Smashing  them  to  Pieces — Putting  an  Idol  to  a  Queer 
Use — Using  a  God  for  a  Liquor  Flask — Homeliness  an  Antidote  for  Pain — Where 
have  the  Pueblos  Gone? — An  Unsolved  Mystery — Walled  Caves  and  Ruins  of  Stone 
Dwellings — A  Lost  Art — How  did  they  make  Cement? — The  Zunis — How  they 


CONTENTS.  XXV 

PAGE 

Lived — Their  Numerous  Flocks  and  Herds — A  Strange  People — Praying  to  the 
Spirits  of  Ocean — The  Pimas  or  Papagoes — Buried  in  a  sitting  Posture — Feasting 
at  the  Grave — Praying  for  a  New  Husband — Tar  as  a  Cosmetic 261 

CHAPTER  XXXIIL 

THE     PAWNEES— A     NATION     WHOSE     ORIGIN     IS     UNKNOWN— FEUDS     AND 

FIERCE  BATTLES— SKINNING  A  MAN  ALIVE— TRIBES 

CONSTITUTING  THE  NATION. 

Once  a  Numerous  and  Warlike  People — Peculiar  Manner  of  Cutting  their  Hair — Their 
Hunting  Ground — Natural  Home  of  the  Buffalo — Jealousies  and  Feuds  Created  in 
Hunting  Them — Hated  by  all  their  Neighbors — Hatred  of  the  Sioux — Ambition  of 
the  Sioux  to  be  Known  as  a  Pawnee  Killer — Vicious  Tribes  traveling  a  long  way 
to  Fight  the  Pawnees — Vindictiveness — Skinning  a  Man  Alive — Pawnee  Religion 
— Priests  and  Doctors — Medicine  Bags — Widows  of  the  Pawnees — The  Wichitas. .  .  267 

CHAPTER  XXXIV. 

THE  CHIPPEWAS,  OCHIPPWAS,  OR,  AS  THEY  CALLED  THEMSELVES,  OJIBWAS 

—ALGONQUIN  STOCK. 

The  Chippewas — Who  They  Were — Treatment  of  the  Sick — Curious  Customs — Widows 
— Snowshoe  Dance — Striking  the  Post — Story  Telling  Season — Large  Scars — 
Strange  Burial  Customs — The  Crees  Practiced  Sun  Dancing  to  a  Recent  Date — 
Sacs  and  Foxes — Ottawas — Pottawattomies — Miamis — Kaskasias — Seminoles — 
Caddoes — Wacoes 275 

CHAPTER  XXXV. 

THE  NEZ  PERCES,  OR  PIERCED-NOSED    INDIANS— ON    THE    WARPATH— SUR- 
RENDER OF  CHIEF  JOSEPH— THE  CAYUSES. 

A  Part  of  the  Shahaptin  Family — How  the  Nez  Perces  were  first  Discovered — Their 
Pierced  Noses — An  Intelligent  Tribe — WThite  Squatters — First  Outbreak  against 
the  Whites — Going  on  the  Warpath — Organizing  a  Bloody  Campaign — A  Fierce 
Battle — Indian  Tactics — Troops  in  Pursuit — Peculiar  Incident  of  the  Battle — 
Birth  of  a  Child  during  the  Engagement — Chief  Joseph — His  Daughter  Lost  in  the 
Confusion  of  Battle — Devoured  by  Wild  Animals — The  Chief's  only  Heir — His 
Wonderful  Retreat  of  Two  Thousand  Miles — His  Military  Ability — Indians 
Fighting  with  their  Clothes  On — Rare  Instance  of  Indian  Magnanimity — Surren- 
der of  Chief  Joseph — Asking  no  Favors — His  Patriotic  Speech — The  Cayuses — 
Low,  Cunning — Great  Thieves 283 

CHAPTER  XXXVI. 

CHARACTERISTICS    AND    CUSTOMS    OF    THE    CALIFORNIA    TRIBES— INDIANS 
WHO  TATTOOED  THEIR  FACES  AND  BODIES. 

Different  Linguistic  Stock — Many  Languages  Spoken  among  this  Group — Tribes 
which  went  Naked— Garments  of  Rabbit  Skins — Painting  their  Faces  and  Bodies 


CONTENTS. 

PAGH 

— Personal  Adornment — Slitting  their  Ears — The  Custom  of  Tattooing  and  what 
it  Meant — Passing  Goose  Quills  through  the  Nose — Night  Watchers  of  the  Camp — 
An  Indian  Bath — Ingenious  Ways  of  Catching  Fish — Eating  their  Food  Raw, 
Entrails  and  All — A  Meal  of  Grasshoppers — Bread  made  of  dried  and  pulverized 
Grasshoppers — Eating  Portions  of  the  Bodies  of  their  Enemies — Money  Esti- 
mate of  Human  Life — Peculiar  Marriage  Customs — Dances  and  Festivities — Gam- 
bling and  Games — Treatment  of  the  Sick — Cremating  their  Dead 291 

CHAPTER  XXXVII. 

THE  COLUMBIAN  GROUP— THE  STORY  OF  AN  INDIAN  QUEST  FOR  THE  WHITE 
MAN'S  BIBLE— INDIAN  ATROCITIES. 

A  Brave  but  Peaceably  Inclined  People — Ceremonies  when  Preparing  for  the  War- 
path— Imitating  the  Cry  of  Birds  and  Wild  Animals — The  War  Chief — -How 
Braves  were  Enlisted  for  War — Treatment  of  Women  among  the  Different  Tribes 
— Indian  Slaves  and  Slavery — Staking  Wives  and  Children  on  Games  of  Chance — 
A  Risky  Profession — Burial  Ceremonies — A  Vicious  Tribe  Called  the  Rogues — 
Why  they  were  so  named — An  Expedition  in  Search  of  the  White  Man's  Bible — 
Father  De  Smet — His  Life  and  Labors  among  the  Indians — The  Measles  among 
the  Indians — Destruction  of  the  Protestant  Mission — Savage  Instincts  Aroused — 
An  Expedition  for  the  Rescue  of  Captives 302 

CHAPTER  XXXVIII. 
THE  GREAT  INDIAN  NATIONS. 

Their  Marked  Characteristics  and  Radically  Different  Languages — The  Great  Algon- 
quin Family— Their  Widely  Separated  Tribes — Names  of  the  Different  Tribes— 
The  Apalachees  or  Mobiles,  Often  Called  the  Southern  Indians — Names  of  the 
Tribes — The  Athabaskees — Names  of  the  Tribes — The  Lacotah  or  Sioux — Names 
of  Tribes — The  Shoshone  Nation — Names  of  Tribes  Constituting  this  Nation — 
The  Shahaptin  Family  and  its  Tribes — The  Salish  Family — The  Chinooks — The 
Haidahs— The  California  Tribes— The  Pueblos— The  Columbian  Group— Names  of 
Tribes— The  Pawnees — Their  Obscure  Origin — The  Miscellaneous  Tribes,  of  whose 
Origin  Little  or  Nothing  is  Known 311 

CHAPTER  XXXIX. 

THE    SUN    DANCE    OF    THE    SIOUX— THE    GREATEST    OF    ALL    INDIAN    CERE- 
MONIES—SELF-INFLICTED WOUNDS  AND  AGONIZING  TOR- 
TURE—A TERRIBLE  ORDEAL. 

The  Greatest  of  all  Indian  Ceremonies— I  find  myself  in  Favor  with  the  Indians  and 
take  Advantage  of  it— Obtain  Permission  to  Witness  a  Sun  Dance— Assurance  that 

I    should    not    be    Molested— Precautionary    Measures— An    Animated    Scene A 

Moving  Mass  of  Animal  Life— Preparations  for  the  Dance— Selecting  the  Sun  Pole 
—Awaiting  the  Rising  of  the  Sun— Painted  Warriors  on  their  best  Horses— A 


CONTENTS.  XXVH 

PAGE 

Wild  Dash  around  the  Sun  Pole — The  Dance  formally  begun — Scenes  in  Camp 
during  the  First  Day — Wonderful  Endurance — First  Night  of  the  Dance — Left 
Naked  and  Destitute  on  the  Prairie — Horrible  Self-Torture — Slitting  Open  both 
Breasts — Inserting  a  Lariat  through  the  Slits — A  Dreadful  Ordeal 323 

CHAPTER  XL. 

THE  SCALP  DANCE  AND  ITS  SIGNIFICANCE— GHASTLY  TROPHIES  OF  MASSA- 
CRE AND  WAR— THE  WAR  DANCE  AND  ITS  OBJECT— 
GREWSOME  TRINKETS  WORN. 

The  Scalp  Dance — Treatment  of  Scalps — Scalp  Poles — Description  of  the  Dance — A 
Strange  Place  to  make  Love — Courting  an  Indian  Maiden — The  Scalp  Dance  next 
in  Importance  to  the  Sun  Dance — Excitement  of  the  Dancers — Telling  how  the 
Scalp  was  taken — Exhibition  of  Trophies — The  Scalp  the  Unmistakable  Evidence 
of  having  killed  an  Enemy — Indian  Braggarts — Notorious  Liars — The  War 
Dance — Its  Object — Organizing  a  War  Party — Encouraging  the  Braves  to  Join — 
Praying  for  their  Safe  Return — Feasting  on  Dogs — Prayers  of  the  Old  Women — 
The  Medicine  Dance — What  it  was  and  why  it  was  held — The  Medicine  Bag — 
Nations  who  used  it — Mystery  of  the  Medicine  Bag — Disinclination  of  Indians  to 
talk  about  it — Grewsome  Trinkets  Worn — The  Fire  Dance — The  Snake  Dance.  .  .  .  334 

CHAPTER  XLI. 

ORIGIN  OF  THE  NORTH  AMERICAN  INDIANS— WHERE  DID  THEY  COME  FROM— 
INTERESTING  THEORIES— A  QUESTION  NEVER  SOLVED. 

The  Indians  of  North  America — Ingenious  Theories  of  their  Origin — Claimed  to  be  of 
Mongolian,  Africa,  and  Hebrew  Descent — Did  they  Descend  from  the  Ten  Lost 
Tribes  of  Israel  ? — Different  Theories — Difference  between  the  Indians  and 
Hebrews,  Chinamen,  and  Negroes — Curious  Analogies — My  Own  Opinion — Why  I 
think  that  the  Indian  was  Placed  here  by  our  Great  Creator — A  Distinct  Race — 
Entirely  Unlike  any  other — Old-Man-Afraid-of-his-Horses'  Logical  Reasoning — 
Mountains  and  Rivers  in  the  Moon — Did  they  cross  over  from  Asia  by  way  of 
Bering's  Straits? — The  Mound  Builders — Implements  found  in  the  Mounds — Their 
Art  in  Cutting  Precious  Stones — Exquisite  Gold  Images  from  their  Graves — Con- 
clusion as  to  the  Origin  of  the  Red  Man 341 

CHAPTER  XLII. 

INDIAN  MASSACRES  AND  BATTLES— THRILLING  INCIDENTS  OF  FRONTIER 
LIFE— TRAGEDIES  OF  THE  MOUNTAINS  AND  PLAINS. 

Indian  Warfare — Attacking  Field  Pieces  with  Tomahawks — Burial  of  Massacred 
Troops — Burial  of  Dead  Warriors — The  Fetterman  Massacre — Reserving  the  Last 
Shot  for  Themselves — How  Information  about  this  Bloody  Affair  was  Obtained — 
Firing  the  Station  with  Burning  Arrows — Killing  a  Lurking  Foe — Blowing  the 
top  of  an  Indian's  Head  off — Our  Battle  on  Tongue  River — A  Desperate  Charge — 
A  Trooper's  Grim  Remark — A  Fierce  Indian  Battle — Two  able  Leaders — How  they 
described  other  Battles  and  Massacres .  343 


CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

CHAPTEK  XLIII. 

THE  MASSACRE  OF  GENERAL  CANBY  BY  THE  MODOCS— CAPTAIN  JACK  AND 
SCAR-FACED  CHARLIE— INDIAN  TREACHERY— PUNISH- 
MENT OF  THE  MURDERERS. 

War*  between  the  Modocs  and  their  Neighbors — Inexperienced  Agents — Surprising 
Captain  Jack's  Camp — Fight  between  the  Modocs  and  the  Troops — Massacre  of 
White  Settlers  by  the  Modocs — Avenging  the  Massacre — Thirty  Soldiers  Killed, 
and  not  an  Indian  Injured — The  Peace  Commission — General  Canby  Chosen — 
Sullen  and  Angry  Indians — Schonochin — His  Hatred  of  the  Whites — Waiting  for 
Revenge — Ben  Wright's  Inhuman  Massacre  of  the  Modocs — A  Bloody  Day — Scar- 
faced  Charlie — His  Friendship  for  the  Whites — Treachery  Suspected — Danger 
Ahead — The  Indians  Indicted  for  Murder — Captain  Jack's  Retreat  to  the  Lava 
Beds — A  Conference  sought  with  him — Falling  into  a  Trap — Going  to  the  Meeting 
Unarmed — Massacre  of  General  Canby  and  his  Party — Capture  and  Punishment  of 
the  Murderers 359 

CHAPTEE   XLIV. 

A  FRONTIER  TRAGEDY— GENERAL  OUSTER'S   LAST   FIGHT— HIS   DEATH,   AND 
THE  ANNIHILATION   OF  HIS   ENTIRE   COMMAND— NARRA- 
TIVE OF  RED  HORSE,  A  SIOUX  CHIEF. 

Custei's  Annihilation — The  Country  alive  with  Hostile  Indians — Who  was  Sitting 
Bui!? — An  Indian  Camp  of  Ten  Thousand  Men,  Women,  and  Children — Striking 
tlia  Tinemy — Chief  Gall — An  Able  Indian  Leader — The  Battle  of  the  Little  Big 
Horn — Ouster's  Fatal  Mistake — A  Desperate  and  Bloody  Battle — Where  was 
General  Ouster? — Discovering  the  Bodies  of  the  Slain — A  Pile  of  Empty  Cartridge 
Shells  beside  each  Corpse — Coming  to  the  Rescue — Burying  the  Dead — Appear- 
ance of  the  Slain — Their  Pained  and  Terrified  Expressions — Rain-in-the-Face — 
His  vow  to  Cut  Out  the  Heart  of  Captain  Thomas  Custer — Sitting  Bull  a  Great 
Liar,  a  Wily  Old  Rascal — My  Interview  with  Rain-in-the-Face — An  Indian  Ac- 
count of  the  Battle  by  Red  Horse,  a  Sioux  Chief 365 

CHAPTER  XLV. 

THE    GREAT     SIOUX     MASSACRE— MIRACULOUS     ESCAPES    AND    THRILLING 
ADVENTURES— SUFFERINGS  OF  CAPTIVES. 

Cause  of  the  Massacre — War  of  Extermination  decided  upon  by  the  Indians — They 
take  the  Warpath — Their  First  Attack — Courage  of  a  French  Ferryman — His 
Heroic  Death — Killing  Fleeing  Settlers — Hacked  to  Pieces  with  Knives — 
Children's  Brains  Beaten  Out — Burned  Alive — Hung  on  Hooks — Sticks  Driven 
through  their  Bodies — Mutilation  of  the  Dead — Roasting  a  Child  Alive — Thrilling 
Escapes— Two  Brothers  trying  to  Save  a  Sick  Mother — The  Settlers  Rally  for  De- 
fense— Holding  White  Prisoners — Their  Extreme  Suffering — Miraculous  Escape  of 
Two  Brothers — Six  Hundred  and  Forty-four  Settlers  and  Ninety-three  Soldiers 
Slain.  . 


CONTENTS.  XXIX 

PAGE 

CHAPTER  XLVI. 

THE   FUR   COMPANIES— HOW   THEY   OPERATED— HUNTERS   AND   TRADERS   IN 
THE  INDIAN  COUNTRY— THEIR  EVERYDAY  LIFE  AND  EXPLOITS. 

The  First  White  Men  among  the  Wild  Indians — The  Hudson  Bay  Company — How 
Trading  Posts  were  Established  from  Ocean  to  Ocean — Their  Maxim,  "Never 
Trust  an  Indian" — Effect  of  a  White  Man's  Fist  on  an  Indian's  Nose — Fierce 
Competition — Vile  Liquors  Sold  to  the  Indians — John  Jacob  Astor  and  the  Ameri- 
can Fur  Company — Hardy  Trappers  and  Daring  Frontiersmen — Danger  of  Trap- 
ping in  a  Hostile  Country — In  the  Wilderness  for  Several  Years — Robbing  the 
Indian — Twenty  Dollars'  Worth  of  Beaver  Skins  for  Fifty  Cents — "Fire  Water" 
why  so  Named — How  Indians  Tested  Brandy — Made  of  the  "Hearts  of  Wild  Cats 
and  the  Tongues  of  Women" — Trappers  taken  by  Surprise — Lying  in  Ambush ....  388 

CHAPTER  XLVIL 

FAMOUS  EXPEDITIONS  INTO  THE  INDIAN  COUNTRY— PERU  ,OUS  JOURNEYS 
OVERLAND  BY  OX  TEAMS  AND  PRAIRIE  SCHOONERS. 

Expedition  of  Lieutenants  Lewis  and  Clark — Preparations  for  the  Journey — Their 
First  Winter  in  a  Wild  and  Unknown  Country — Assistance  from  Friendly  Indians 
— Meeting  the  Snakes — Explorations  of  Lieutenants  Pike  and  Long — Capture  of 
Lieutenant  Pike  and  Party — Expedition  of  Captain  Bonneville — Battles  with  the 
Early  Traders — Gold  Discoveries — The  Rush  to  the  Mines — Fremont's  Expedition 
— The  Santa  F6  Trail — Prairie  Schooners — A  Dangerous  Trip — Excitement  in  the 
Pike's  Peak  Country — An  Overland  Wagon  Train — Waylaid  by  Indians — How 
Wagon  Trains  were  Corraled — Fighting  against  Odds — The  Great  American  Bull- 
Whacker — His  Whip  and  Skill  in  Using  It — An  Incident  on  the  Sweetwater  River — 
An  Astonished  Indian .  398 


CHAPTER  XLVIIL 

THE    AMERICAN    TROOPER    AS  AN  INDIAN    FIGHTER— PERILOUS    SERVICE- 
SCOUTING   FOR   INDIANS. 

Fighting  Indians  with  Cannon — Their  Amazement  at,  and  Dread  of  Shells — An  In- 
scrutable Mystery — Fighting  them  after  their  own  Fashion — The  best  Soldiers 
in  the  World — Hand-to-Hand  Conflict  with  the  Indians — Fighting  on  Foot — Keep- 
ing with  the  Command — Blowing  their  own  Brains  Out — As  Mild  as  a  Child  but 
as  full  of  Fight  as  a  Tiger — Fighting  Indians  Day  by  Day — Sleepless  Nights — 
On  a  Scout — How  the  Trooper  Slept  at  Night — A  Duel  between  two  Soldiers — A 
Sad  Incident — After  the  Duel — Toes,  Fingers,  and  Hands  Frozen — Animals  Fro- 
zen to  Death — Unwelcome  Night  Visitors — Grizzly  Bears  in  Camp — The  Despised 
Wolves — Cunning  and  Dangerous  Animals — Eating  Boots  and  Saddles — Eating 
their  Companions  Alive — Horses  and  Mules  Crazed  by  Fright 406 


CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

CHAPTER  XLIX. 

THE  OVERLAND  STAGE— DESPERADOES  AND  ROAD  AGENTS— AX  INDIAN 
ATTACK  THAT  COVERED  TWELVE  HUNDRED  MILES. 

The  Overland  Stage  Line — How  the  Line  was  Operated — A  Hundred  Miles  in  Twenty- 
four  Hours — Its  Extraordinary  Service — Prey  for  Indians  and  Road  Agents — Fre- 
quent Raids  on  the  Stage  Stations — Looting  the  Stages — Road  Agents — Jules 
Bevi  and  his  Tragic  Death — Killed  by  the  Noted  Desperado,  Alfred  Slade — Cut- 
ting Off  his  Victim's  Ears — Nailing  One  of  them  to  the  Door — Dangling  the  Other 
from  his  Watch  Chain — The  WToist  White  Man  in  that  Country — His  Misdeeds — 
His  Visit  to  my  Camp — A  Heeded  Warning — In  the  Hands  of  the  Vigilantes — Ex- 
ecution of  Slade  and  his  two  Comrades — Dying  like  Cowards — A  Massacre  that 
Extended  Twelve  Hundred  Miles — The  Wonderful  Mirage 416 

CHAPTER   L. 

THE  PONY  EXPRESS— A  DANGEROUS  SERVICE  IN  A  DANGEROUS  COUNTRY- 
WONDERFUL  ENDURANCE  AND  DARING  FEATS  OF  THE  RIDERS. 

Riding  on  Horseback  from  the  Missouri  River  to  the  Pacific  Ocean  in  Ten  Days — A 
Bucking  Pony — A  Vicious  Beast — Bleeding  from  the  Nose,  Mouth,  Eyes,  and  Ears 
— Courage  and  Daring  of  Pony  Express  Riders — Running  the  Gauntlet  for  Hun- 
dreds of  Miles  among  Hostile  Indians  and  Murderous  Road  Agents — Exhaustion 
of  the  Riders — Unable  to  Dismount — Incidents  and  Experiences — Riding  Night 
and  Day — The  Fastest  and  Longest  Ride  ever  made — Wonderful  Endurance — How 
the  News  of  Abraham  Lincoln's  Inauguration  was  carried  across  the  Continent — 
Taking  a  Dead  Man's  Place — Dangers  by  the  way — Pursued — Safe  at  last — 
Physical  Strain  of  Long  Horseback  Riding — A  Personal  Experience-  -My  Escort — 
A  never-to-be-forgotten  Ride — A  Country  alive  with  Wild  and  Frenzied  Warriors 
— The  Electric  Telegraph 422 

CHAPTER  LI. 

WILD  HORSES— WHERE  THEY  CAME  FROM— HOW7  THEY  WERE  CAPTURED 

AND  SUBDUED. 

Wild  Horses — First  Known  in  America  in  1518 — Indians'  Astonishment  at  first  see-" 
ing  a  Horse  and  Rider — The  Wild  Horse's  Struggle  for  Existence  during  the 
Cold  Winter — Indian's  Mode  of  Securing  them — Their  Cruelty  to  them — Their 
Great  Abundance  in  Early  Days — The  White  Man's  Method  of  Securing  them — 
"Creasing" — Walking  them  down — From  Twenty-four  to  Thirty-six  Hours  Neces- 
sary to  Accomplish  it — Difficulty  in  Breaking  them 430 

CHAPTER  LIT. 

KILLING  BUFFALOES— AN  EXCITING  AND  DANGEROUS  SPORT— "BUCK  AGUE" 

—GREEN  SPORTSMEN— PERSONAL  EXPERIENCES 

AND   REMINISCENCES. 

Millions  of  Buffaloes — Indispensable  to  the  Indians — How  Wolves  Attacked  and 
Killed  them — Why  did  they  always  cross  in  Front  of  a  Railroad  Train? — Buffalo 


CONTENTS.  XXXI 

PAGE 

Gnats — Stinging  the  Animals  to  Fury — Buffalo  Chips — The  only  Fuel  on  the 
Plains — Guests  Deceived — Eaten  Alive  by  Wolves — The  Latter's  Unearthly  Howls 
— Excitement  of  a  Buffalo  Hunt — A  Thrilling  Spectacle — Horses  as  Buffalo 
Hunters — Dashing  into  the  Herd — A  Shower  of  Stones  and  Earth — Dangerous 
Sport  for  a  Verdant— Shooting  the  Animal  through  the  Ears — Inexperienced 
Hunters — Teaching  them  to  Hunt — Shooting  his  own  Horse — An  Astonished 
Sportsman — Danger  of  being  Trampled  to  Death — Buck  Ague — Its  Effects 433 

CHAPTER  LIU. 

WILD     ANIMALS     AND     REPTILES    OF    THE     PLAINS     AND     MOUNTAINS— THE 
DEADLY  RATTLESNAKE  AND  ITS  HABITS— FUR- 
BEARING  ANIMALS  AND  THEIR  WAYS. 

The  Rattlesnake — Its  Deadly  Bite — Its  One  Good  Trait — Its  Sickening  Odor — Coiling 
for  a  Spring — Planner  of  Striking — How  Deer  Killed  the  Rattler— The  Rattler's 
Only  Redeeming  Quality — How  the  Peccary  and  Hog  Killed  Snakes — How  the 
Blacksnake  Killed  the  Rattler — The  Pisano  or  Road  Runner — Its  Method  of 
Killing  Rattlers — The  Bull-Whacker's  Method — The  Prairie  Dog  and  its  Habita- 
tion— What  it  Lived  on — Its  Domicile  Invaded  by  Rattlers  and  Screech  Owls — 
The  Antelope  and  its  Habits — Its  Fatal  Curiosity — The  Elk — The  Moose — Use  of 
his  Flag  Horns — The  Black-Tailed  Deer — The  White-Tailed  Deer — The  Beaver — 
A  Born  Aichitect — Their  Beds — A  Sagacious  and  Industrious  Animal — Gnawing 
Feet  off  to  Gain  their  Freedom — The  Otter 443 

CHAPTER  LIV. 

BEARS    AND    THEIR     WAYS— ADVENTURES    WITH     GRIZZLIES— AN    EXCITING 
FIGHT  AND  A  RACE  FOR  LIFE. 

The  Black  Bear — Its  Home,  Habits  and  Food — Fondness  for  Honey — Tenacity  of  Life 
— The  Bear  as  a  Boxer — How  Indians  Secured  Them — Four  Bears  Equal  to  One 
Scalp — Tearing  out  the  Entrails  of  a  Dog  at  one  Blow — The  Cinnamon  Bear — Its 
Peculiarities — A  Puzzle  to  Naturalists — The  Grizzly  Bear — The  Largest  and  Most 
Formidable  Bear  in  Existence — Its  Awkward  Gait — Why  the  Grizzly  was  called 
"Sambo" — Avoided  by  Mountaineers — Indians  Killing  a  Grizzly — A  Memorable 
Fight  With  a  Grizzly — Starting  Him  Up  in  the  Underbrush — An  Exciting  Time — 
An  Enraged  Bear — The  Fight  On — A  Race  for  Life — A  Narrow  Escape — Tor- 
mented by  Dogs — Fourteen  Bullets  in  Sambo's  Body — Killed  at  Last 457 

CHAPTER  LV. 

JIM  BRIDGER,  FAMOUS  SCOUT,  GUIDE,  FRONTIERSMAN,  AND  INDIAN  FIGHTER 
—PERSONAL  EXPERIENCES  WITH  HIM. 

A  Typical  Frontiersman — Trapper,  and  Famous  Indian  Fighter — An  Unerring  Guide 
— His  Skill  as  a  Trailer — The  Man  who  Trained  Kit  Carson — Bridger's  Wit  and 
Humor — Some  Characteristic  Anecdotes — The  Invisible  Mountain — A  Thrilling 
and  Fatal  Adventure — Telling  the  Stoi-y  of  his  own  Death — Bridger's  Strange  Man- 
ner of  Living — Unable  to  Read,  but  could  Quote  from  Shakespeare — A  High- 


CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

Priced  Book — Bridget  at  the  Battle  of  Powder  River — "A  Mean  Camp" — His  Visit 
to  the  President — What  Bridger  thought  of  Him — A  Gang  of  Despeiadoes  Discom- 
fited— My  Winter  with  Him — His  Queer  Habits — Going  to  Bed  at  all  Hours — 
Cooking  his  Meals  in  the  Middle  of  the  Night— Singing  "Injun" — Bridger  in 
Battle  with  the  Utes,  Killing  and  Scalping  a  Ute  in  a  Hand-to-Hand  Conflict — 
Challenging  an  Arapahoe — What  Followed 462 

CHAPTEE  LVI. 

A  FAMOUS    FRONTIERSMAN,  TRAPPER,  SCOUT    AND    GUIDE— A  WHITE    MAN 

WrHO  HAD  A  SNAKE  WOMAN  AND  LIVED  THE  INDIAN 

LIFE  MANY  YEARS— HIS   ADVENTURES 

AND  EXPLOITS. 

Jim  Baker  a  Noted  Character — Wanders  into  the  Snake  Tribe — Lives  With  a  Snake 
Woman  and  Adopts  the  Clothing  and  the  Life  of  the  Snakes — A  Desperate  Fig"ht 
with  Indians — Fleeced  by  Gamblers — His  Fortitude — Adventures  with  a  Party  of 
Miners — Discovers  Gold — Attacked  by  Indians— Fighting  Indians  Step  by  Step  for 
a  Hundred  Miles — The  Killed  and  Wounded — His  Deadly  Rifle — Hatred  of  the 
Mormons — A  Perilous  Journey — Concealed  by  Day  and  Traveling  by  Night 411 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


PAGE 

Portrait  of  the  Author Frontispiece. 

Teton   Sioux • X1 

Jumping  Dog — Ogalala  Sioux 

A  Typical  Indian  Village — Skin  Covered  Lodges 49 

Spotted   Wolf— Typical    Chippewa . 51 

Warrior  with  Bear  Claw  Necklace — War   Painting 56 

Medicine  Man  in  Mourning — Showing  manner  of  Cutting  the  Hair  for  Mourning ....  59 
Many  Horns,  Gros  Ventre  Indian,  with  Ear  Pendants  of  Iroquois  shells  tipped  with 

Large    Shell 62 

Red  Cloud,  the  noted   Sioux   Chief . 65 

The  One  who  hits  the  Bear — With  Red  Stone  Pipe  and  Pipe  Stem — Decorated  with 

Scalps — Blackfoot  Indian 67 

The  Challenge — The  Tail  of  the  Scalp  Lock  thrown  over  the  Head,  indicating  "Take 

it"    69 

Comanche   Warrior — Gap   in   the   Salt 75 

White  Thunder  in  Mourning — Iroquois  shell  Ear  Pendants 80 

Painting  on  Bodies — Peculiar  manner  of  Cutting  the  Hair— Pipe  Tomahawk 83 

Buckskin  Shirt  with  Indian  Drawing 84 

Indian  Drawing  on  Tanned  Deer  Skin 86 

Lodge  and  Wind  Break 87 

Baby  Carrier  Ornamented  with  Bead  work  in  various  Colors — Cheyenne 92 

Sioux  Warrior  in  Mourning 94 

Child's  Rattle  and  Quirt 95 

Whistling  Bear — Brule  Sioux 102 

Kiowa  Lodge 103 

Indian    Travois — Blackfoot 106 

Kicking  Bear's  Camp — Sioux 110 

Indian  Bark  House 112 

Bull-Boat   of   the   Northwest 115 

Snowshoes   of   the   Blackfeet 116 

Little    Kiowa    Girl    with    Doll 117 

War  Club  Ornamented  with  Brass-headed  Nails — Bear   Claw   Necklace — Decoration  on 

End    of    Buckskin    Shirt    Sleeves — Facial  Painting — Minneconjoux    Sioux 119 

Lance  and  Belt — Sioux.     Dog  Soldier  Insignia 120 

Scaffold  Graves  on  the  Plains — Sioux — Platte  River 128 

Spotted  Tail  and  Wife  Number  Two— The  Noted  Chief  of  the  Ogalala  Sioux 130 

Tree  Grave — Brule  Sioux — Republican  River 132 

Mandan  Burial  Place — Dish  with  Food  for  the  Spirit 134 

Slow  Bull — Typical   Sioux 136 


LIST  OP  ILLUSTRATIONS. 

PAGE 

Sioux  Camp  on  the  Yellowstone  River 137 

Barbed  Arrrow  Head — Sioux 138 

Little  Wound — War  Bonnet  decorated  with  Scalps  on  End  of  Feathers — Beaded  Leg- 
gings and  Moccasins — Red  Stone  Pipe  and  Ornamented  Stem 140 

Group  of  Sioux — Woman  on  Right.  Showing  Manner  of  Sitting  on  the  Legs 141 

Good  Hawk,  in  full  Ceremonial  Costume — Sioux 143 

Sioux  Camp — Shield  on  Tripod  with  Scalp  Hanging  from  the  Center 144 

Sweat  House  of  the  Sioux 146 

Medicine  Man  Making  Medicine 147 

Typical  Indian  Saddle — Warrior  in  full  Mourning 148 

Sioux  Woman — Shirt  Ornamented  with  Deer  Hoofs 150 

Zin-Tha  Kin-Yan  (Flying  Bird) — Typical  Sioux — Tobacco  Pouch,  Leggings  and  Mocca- 
sins Ornamented  with  Beads  of  Various  Colors 151 

Story  Telling — Sioux 15£ 

Mandan  Indian  * 153 

Chief  with  Big  War  Bonnet — Full  Dress — Beaded  Leggings  and  Moccasins — Toma- 
hawk— Sioux     155 

Wash-Ona-Koora — Rushing  War  Eagle — Bear  Claw  Necklace — Mandan  Sioux 157 

Sioux  Camp  at  Agency 158 

Ta-To-Kain-You-Ka — Running  Antelope — Typical  Brule  Sioux 160 

Brule    Sioux   with   War   Bonnet 161 

Ma-To-Shi-Sha— Wicked    Bear— War    Bonnet    Decorated   with    Scalps    on    Tips    of 

Feathers — Sioux     162 

Ma-To-Yeu-Mni — Ogalala — Three  Bears  and  War  Bonnet — Sioux 163 

Yankton  Sioux  in  their  Homes 164 

Spotted    Dog — Sioux 165 

Bloody  Mouth — Uncpapa  Sioux 166 

Group  of  Sioux  in   Ceremonial   Dress 168 

Iron  Fa«e 169 

Omaha  Indian  of  Rank — Insignia  of  Hand  on  Bead  Ornamented  Cap 171 

Chief  of  the  Omahas 172 

Wife  of  Chevers — Comanche 1 74 

Horse  Back's  Camp 176 

Comanche    Woman 179 

Mounted   Comanche    Woman Igl 

Comancho  Lodges Ig3 

Loco.  Chief  of  the  Warm  Spring  Apaches 187 

Typical   Apache  Warrior 190 

Warm  Spring  Apache I9«> 


Wood  Arrow  Head. 


194 


Geronimo.  Chief  of  the  Apaches 195 

Various  Indian  Characters  in  Arizona 197 

Typical  Arizona  Indians UK. 

Children's  Toys l^q 

Ouray   f  Arrow  \ .  Ute  Chief 

Fte  Stone  Knife 

TTte  Camp.  Los  Pinos AM 

Ute  Family — Man  and  Three  Wires o  ,  - 


LIST   OF   ILLUSTRATIONS.  XXXV 

PAGE 

Pi-Ute    Habitation 206 

Typical  Snake  Indian 208 

Bannock   Family  at  Home — Man  with  Three  Wives 212 

Blackfoot   Chief — Headdress   of    Eagle    Feathers 217 

Typical   Warrior 220 

Chopped  Up — Piegan 222 

Wild  Warrior — Large  Ear  Pendants — Eagle  Feathers  Tipped  with  Scalps — In  Scalp- 
lock    223 

Crow    Lodges 225 

Child's    Rattle 235 

Kiowa    Camp — Arkansas    River 237 

Feather  Wolf — Typical  Cheyenne  Warrior 421 

Crazy  Head  and  Spotted  Wolf — Cheyennes 242 

Stone  Calf  and  Wife — Cheyennes 244 

Starving  Elk — Typical  Cheyenne  Warrior 246 

Cheyenne  Warrior  in  full  War  Costume 248 

Medicine  Staff  and  Medicine  Arrows — Cheyenne 249 

Typical   Plains  Indian 250 

Arrowhead  made  from  a  Root 251 

Arapahoe    Lodge — Drying   Meat 253 

Typical   Navajoe 255 

Navajoe   Woman   Weaving 256 

Navajoe    in    War    Costume 257 

Navajoe    Warrior 258 

Cebra    Negra — Navajoe 259 

Manner  of  Wearing  the  Hair — Zunis   Females 263 

Group   of   Indians   with    Bear   Claw   Necklaces 266 

Pawnee  Village 268 

Pawnee   Warriors — Manner   of   Wearing   the   Hair 269 

Pawnee    Habitations — Mud    Houses 270 

Pawnee  Warrior — Full  War  Costume 271 

Group    of    Pawnee    Braves 272 

Reed    Habitation — Decorated    Indian 274 

Little   Shell — Typical   Chippewa 275 

Ornamented  Otter  Skin  Medicine  Bag 270 

Wooden    Arrowhead 277 

Bear  Claw  Necklace — Head  Covering  made  of  Skins — Horsehair  Ornamentation — Sac 

and    Fox 281 

Full  Buckskin  Dress,  ornamented  with  Beads  and  Fringes — Nez  Perc£  Warrior.  284 

Thunder-Rolling-in-the-Mountains,  otherwise  Chief  Joseph — Nez  Perce 280 

Mounted   Warrior — Painted   War   Horse — Nez   Perce 288 

Indian   with    Beaded    Leggings    and    Moccasins — Shirt   ornamented    with    Wolf    Skin 

Strips — Government    Medal J .  291 

Indian    Drawing   on    Buffalo    Robe 293 

Habitations  of  Mountain  Tribes — Skin-covered   Lodges 301 

Indian    with    Beaver    Cap    and    Fan 302 

Indian    Ball    Bat 304 

Wooden    Lance    Head 3j  1 


LIST   OF   ILLUSTRATIONS. 

PAGE 

Tattooed  Warrior — Decorated  Breech  Cloth 313 

Typical    Sioux 3 

Warrior  in  Ceremonial  Costume — Preparatory  to  a  "Big  Talk". 316 

Ready  for  the  Council — Standing  Buffalo 318 

Facial    Painting— Bear    Skin   Cap 323 

Sioux  in  Full  Mourning 327 

Tom-Tom  and  Elk  Horn  Scraper 329 

A  Typical  Indian 333 

Indian  of  Rank — Insignia  on  Cap 335 

Indians  Preparing  for  the  Scalp  Dance 338 

Fire  Dance 339 

Snake    Dancers 340 

An  Arikara  Indian — Belt  Decorated  with  Brass  Buttons — Bear  Claw  Necklace 343 

Painted  Warrior — Osage .    346 

Typical  Indian  Encampment 348 

Typical    Indian — Buckskin    Shirt 350 

Typical  Lodge  and  Indians 352 

Indian    Tree    Grave 355 

Indian   Woman   weaving   Basket — Zuni 358 

Indian   in   Mourning 359 

Indian  with  Cap,  Ornamented  Shirt,  Leggings  and  Tobacco  Pouch 362 

Indian   Woman — Cloak    decorated   with    Elk    Teeth 364 

Gall — Chief  Uncpapa  Sioux,  and  Leader  of  Battle  of  Little  Big  Horn 365 

Rain-in-the-Face 372 

Sitting-Bull — Sioux    373 

Sitting-Bull's  Cabin,  and  the  Place  of  his  Death 374 

Battle  of  Little  Big  Horn — Sioux  Leaving   Battle-Ground — Drawn   by    Red   Horse — 

Sioux 376 

Dead  Sioux — Drawn  by  Red  Horse,  Sioux  Chief 378 

Warrior    with    Government    Medal 380 

Warrior   with   Bear   Claw   Necklace 383 

Chippewa  in  War  Costume 388 

Warm   Spring   Indian 395 

Woman's  Belt  made  of  Various    Colored    Beads,  with    Thongs  for  Fastening    Around 

the    Body 401 

Lone  Horn 410 

Prairie  Wolves — Coyotes 413 

Gray   Wolf 414 

Overland   Stage 417 

Mountain    Lion 444 

Rattlesnakes    at    Rest 445 

Rattlesnake  Preparing  to  Strike 446 

Prairie    Dogs 449 

The  Antelope 4<-Q 

Rocky   Mountain   Buck 459 

Bark  House — Sac  and  Fox 475 


TWENTY  YEARS  AMONG  OUR  HOSTILE  INDIANS. 


CHAPTER    I. 

THE  PATHLESS  WEST  OF  YEARS  AGO— THE  NATURAL  HOME  OF  OUR  SAVAGE 
INDIANS— ROVERS  AND  FIGHTERS. 

The  Natural  Home  of  the  Indians — Their  Numbers  when  I  first  knew  them — Their 
Superstition  against  being  counted — Keeping  a  Roster  of  their  Fighting  Men — 
The  Terrible  Scourge  of  Small-pox — Indian  Dread  of  this  Disease — Leaving  the 
Afflicted  to  Suffer  and  Die— An  Imposing  Body  of  Warriors — A  Treacherous  and 
Vicious  Lot — Visiting  the  Great  Father  at  Washington — Stories  told  by  them  on 
their  Return — Starting  a  War  Party. 

THE  majority  of  people  to-day  little  realize  that  only  a  few  years  ago 
that  tract  of  country  lying  west  of  the  Mississippi  and  Missouri  Rivers  and 
the  Sioux  River  from  its  mouth  to  its  source,  north  into  the  British  pos- 
sessions, as  far  west  as  the  Pacific  Ocean,  and  as  far  south  as  the  central 
portion  of  Mexico,  was  a  trackless  waste,  but  little  known  to  the  white 
man,  and  inhabited  by  various  nations  and .  tribes  of  savage  Indians,  who 
lived  almost  exclusively  by  the  chase. 

When  I  first  went  to  this  wild  country  the  Indian  population  was 
almost  entirely  confined  within  the  boundaries  I  have  described.  There 
were  living  there,  at  that  time,  as  nearly  as  could  be  estimated,  between 
three  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  and  four  hundred  thousand  Indians. 
These  estimates  were  based  solely  on  information  that  came  from  traders, 
trappers,  and  chiefs  of  friendly  nations,  of  which  there  were  only  a  few. 
This  information  was,  of  course,  vague,  but  I  have  little  doubt  of  its  ap- 
proximate correctness.  The  Indians  had  a  superstition  against  being 


46 


TWENTY   YEARS    AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 


counted,  and  as  white  men  were  seldom  permitted  to  enter  their  camps,  no 
accurate  computation  of  their  numbers  could  be  made.  Each  chief,  how- 
ever, kept  himself  informed  as  to  the  number  of  warriors  in  his  tribe  upon 
whom  he  could  rely  should  occasion  arise  to  go  on  the  war-path.  Horses 
and  mules,  too,  were  important  factors,  and  the  chiefs  carried  the  number 
of  them  in  their  memories  with  the  same  accuracy  that  they  kept  a  roster 
of  their  righting  men. 

In  their  aboriginal  condition  each  tribe  occupied  its  own  hunting  ground, 
and  was,  so  to  speak,  a  free  and  independent  sovereignty.  The  remnants 
of  these  once  powerful  peoples  are  now  kept  on  "Indian  Reservations," 
there  literally  cabined,  cribbed  and  confined.  Formerly  they  were  their 

own  masters,  while  at  present 
they  are  almost  entirely 
under  the  supervision  of  the 
United  States  Government. 
Then  they  had  arms,  horses 
and  mules,  and  hunted  and 
lived  on  the  choicest  game. 
To-day  they  have  no  arms, 
no  horses,  no  mules,  and  sub- 
sist on  rations  doled  out  to 
them  with  niggardly  hand  by 
government  agents.  They 
have  become  what  they  are 
in  many  portions  of  the 
country  where  they  have 
been  partly  civilized,  or  an 
effort  made  to  civilize  them, 
namely,  miserable  specimens 
of  humanity,  with  hardly 


JUMPING  DOG — OGATALA   SIOUX. 


enough  to  eat,  not  enough 
clothing  to  cover  their  bodies, 
and  with  inadequate  means  of  shelter.  The  Indian  population  has  been 
greatly  reduced  during  the  past  forty  years.  There  have  been  various 
causes  for  this  reduction,  the  principal  being  small-pox  and  warfare  among 
themselves.  It  is  a  well-authenticated  fact  that  this  dread  disease  is  respon- 
sible for  more  deaths  among  our  wild  Indians  than  any  other  cause.  ^When 
this  scourge  once  got  into  an  Indian  camp  it  played  havoc  among  the 
occupants,  those  who  were  well  fleeing  and  leaving  the  afflicted  to  suffer 
and  die.  The  appearance  of  small-pox  would  not  unreasonably  throw  any 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS.  47 

tribe  into  the  utmost  consternation ;  as  they  had  no  means  of  combating  it 
the  disease  was  generally  fatal.  ) 

Our  wild  Indians  had  no  idea  of  the  ownership  of  land,  either  indi- 
vidually or  collectively.  Like  most  nomadic  people  they  roamed  within  a 
certain  territory,  ill-defined  in  most  instances,  which  they  regarded  as  the 
exclusive  hunting  ground  of  their  nation  or  tribe.  As  they  did  not  till  the 
soil  they  placed  no  value  on  any  particular  spot  or  locality,  save  for  the  game 
it  afforded  for  the  time  being.  With  the  advent  of  the  whites  they  gradu- 
ally realized  that  the  lands  they  claimed  as  their  hunting  grounds  had  a 
value  of  which  they  had  never  dreamed.  The  white  man  was  anxious  to 
secure  what  the  Indians  considered  a  small  portion  of  their  land  to  settle  on, 
and  would  pay  for  it  in  money  or  valuables.  They  accordingly  bartered 
away  their  lands  on  the  best  terms  and  conditions  they  could  obtain,  which 
were  usually  any  offer  that  the  white  man  chose  to  make. 

The  idea  propagated  by  some  modern  sentimentalists  that  in  resisting 
the  march  of  civilization,  the  wild  Indians  were  fighting  for  their  homes 
and  firesides,  belongs  to  fiction  rather  than  to  fact.  In  the  first  place  they 
had  no  home  and  no  fireside,  in  the  civilized  sense  of  these  terms.  They 
had  no  regard  whatever  for  home  as  a  locality  and  no  conception  of  a  fire- 
side as  we  understand  the  term.  Their  home  was  wherever  they  could  secure 
food,  and  when  roaming  over  the  prairies  and  mountains,  or  hunting  game, 
fear  alone  kept  them  on  their  own  territory.  They  had  no  conception  of 
either  individual  or  common  rights,  outside  of  their  own  nation  or  tribe. 
There  have  been  many  instances  where  one  tribe  or  nation  appropriated 
the  hunting  ground  of  another,  driving  the  weaker  people  from  their  terri- 
tory, and  adding  the  seized  tract  of  land  to  their  own.  They  did  not  do 
this  for  the  purpose  of  owning  territory,  as  we  understand  it,  but  from  a 
spirit  of  resentment,  or,  if  I  may  be  allowed  the  expression,  from  pure  cuss- 
edness. 

About  1855  the  Government  sent  several  parties  of  Indians  to  Wash- 
ington to  visit  the  Great  Father,  that  they  might  see  for  themselves  the 
great  number  of  white  people  in  the  East,  and,  returning  to  their  people,  tell 
them  what  they  had  seen.  They  would  always  compare  the  number  of 
whites  to  the  grasses  on  the  prairie.  For  a  long  time  those  who  had 
remained  at  home  were  disbelievers,  and  said  those  who  had  gone  East 
were  bewitched  by  the  whites  who  had  escorted  them,  and  that  they  were 
great  liars.  It  required  persistent  effort  on  their  part  to  make  their  friends 
believe  the  statements  they  made  in  regard  to  the  number  of  people  they 
had  seen  ;  but  as  the  Government  sent  many  of  these  parties  to  Washington, 
at  different  times,  who  corroborated  what  had  already  been  told  by  former 


48  TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG  OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 

visitors,    the  skeptics  were  finally   compelled    to  accept  these   wonderful 
stories  as  true. 

(it  may  seem  strange  that  a  people  so  vicious  and  murderous  should 
pray, — nevertheless  the  custom  obtained  among  nearly  all  Indians,  and  it 
was  by  no  means  uncommon  for  some  of  them  to  pray  many  times  each 
day.^  They  scarcely  did  anything  of  importance  without  addressing  a  crude 
petition  to  their  unknown  Great  Creator,  for  it  was  to  him  that  the  prayers 
of  all  the  wild  Indians  of  North  America  were  directed.  They  prayed  to 
him  because  he  was  good,  and  had  made  so  much  in  the  world  for  which 
they  should  be  thankful. 

On  rare  occasions,  when  there  was  an  important  subject  to  be  discussed, 
the  Indians  would  meet  in  council,  at  which  the  most  prominent  ones 
would  arise,  one  after  another,  and  in  a  standing  position  address  the 
assembly.  These  "big  talks"  were  generally  in  relation  to  the  fitting  out 
and  starting  of  a  war  party,  although  other  matters  of  importance  might 
be  discussed  as  well.  When  a  war  party  was  to  be  made  up  it  was  formed 
of  all  the  available  fighting  material  of  the  nation  or  tribe.  Sometimes  two 
or  three  tribes  of  the  same  nation  joined  together  to  make  the  war  party  as 
formidable  as  possible.  Great  care  was  taken  in  selecting  those  who  were 
to  go,  or  rather  in  rejecting  those  who  were  not  to  go,  for,  as  a  rule,  every 
warrior  was  anxious  to  fight.  A  mounted  party  of  several  hundred  warriors 
made  a  very  imposing  body,  and  if  one  were  inclined  to  be  nervous  their 
approach  in  fighting  trim  would  not  be  likely  to  add  to  his  comfort. 

The  time  taken  in  preparing  a  war  party  varied.  If  there  was  no  neces- 
sity for  an  immediate  start  they  would  take  one,  two,  or  three  weeks  in 
making  preparations.  During  the  time  preceding  the  departure  of  one  of 
these  expeditions  the  entire  tribe  devoted  itself  to  merrymaking.  During 
the  day  they  engaged  in  horse-racing,  gambling,  or  other  amusements 
known  to  aboriginal  life,  and  feasted  almost  continually.  They  would 
form  in  circles  in  the  open  air;  dance  and  sing,  or,  rather,  howl  their  weird 
chants.  Their  dances  consisted  of  jumping  up  and  down  on  their  toes,  the 
men  on  one  side  of  the  circle  and  the  women  on  the  other,  not  joining  hands, 
but  each  individual,  covered  with  a  skin  or  blanket,  faces  painted,  hair 
decorated,  acted  independently,  moving  together  to  the  time  of  their 
drums.  They  would  vigorously  beat  their  tomtoms,  or  Indian  drums,  the 
noise  of  which  could  be  heard  a  long  distance.  When  the  war  party  was 
ready  to  leave,  the  women  assembled,  began  weeping  and  wailing,  offering 
prayers  at  the  same  time  to  the  Great  Creator  for  the  safe  return  of  the 
braves. 

It  was  necessary  at  all  times  to  leave  a  certain  number  of  men  in  the  camp 


TWENTY    YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS.  49 

to  do  the  hunting  and  keep  the  night  watch,  as  every  Indian  camp  always 
had  its  night  watch  to  prevent  surprises  from  hostile  war  parties,  or  un- 
known enemies,  as  well  as  to  look  after  the  animals. 

When  going  into  battle  warriors  rarely,  if  ever,  used  a  saddle,  and,  with 
the  exception  of  the  lariat  around  the  animal's  lower  jaw,  the  horse  was 
naked,  the  Indian  riding  first  on  one  side,  then  on  the  other,  using  the 
animal  as  a  shield.  When  attacking  whites,  they  rode  in  a  circle  round 
and  round  them ;  as  the  fight  progressed  they  would  draw  nearer  and 
nearer.  Their  particular  object  was  to  stampede  the  animals  of  the  party 
attacked.  When  they  accomplished  this  they  generally  withdrew,  unless 
the  enemy  had  other  plunder  they  wished  to  obtain.  At  that  time  the 
Indians'  weapons  were  the  bow  and  arrow,  the  lance,  the  tomahawk,  and 
sometimes  an  old-fashioned  pistol  or  gun;  consequently,  they  found  it 
necessary  to  approach  comparative!)'  near  to  the  party  attacked  that  they 
might  be  able  to  use  these  primitive  weapons  effectively. 


A   TYPICAL   INDIAN   VILLAGE— SKIN   COVERED   LODGES. 


50 


TWENTY   YEARS  AMONG  OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 


CHAPTER  II. 

THE  COURAGE  AND  FIGHTING  QUALITIES  OF  THE  WILD  INDIANS— FOES  THAT 
ASKED  AND  GAVE  NO  QUARTER. 

Going  into  Battle— How  the  Indians  Planned  a  Massacre— Methods  of  Surprising  their 
Enemies— How  we  Defended  Ourselves  against  Sudden  Attacks— Description  of  a 
Real  Battle  with  Indians— Hardships  of  an  Indian  Campaign— Indian  Courage  and 
Ferocity  in  Battle— Personal  Experiences— How  we  Felt  in  an  Indian  Battle- 
Nerved  to  Desperation— Mounted  Indian  Warriors— Their  Personal  Appearance 
and  Peculiar  Fighting  Tactics— Fight  to  the  Death— Giving  and  Asking  no  Quarter- 
Pursuing  the  Indians— Indian  Wiles  and  Treachery — A  Lurking  Foe — Indian  Wai- 
Horses — How  the  Indians  Scalped  their  Enemies  on  the  Battlefield — Burial  of  the 
Bodies  of  Troopers — Burial  of  Indians  who  Fell  in  Battle — Mouining  for  the  Slain — 
The  Safest  Place  after  a  Massacre. 

I  HAVE  been  in  many  engagements  with  these  red  men,  who  always 
outnumbered  us  by  two  or  three  to  one.  When  attacked  our  plan  of  defense 
was  to  dismount,  side  line  or  hobble  our  animals,  then  tie  them  together 
to  prevent  their  being  stampeded.  We  would  then  form  a  circle  outside  of 
our  horses  and  mules,  and  wait  for  a  warrior  to  approach  sufficiently  near 
to  kill  or  wound  him.  We  were  careful  to  allow  them  to  come  near  enough 
for  our  men  to  take  deadly  aim.  In  reserving  our  fire  in  this  way,  we  re- 
served our  strength,  and  kept  the  enemy  at  a  safe  distance. 

An  Indian  battle,  as  we  usually  see  it  portrayed  pictorially,  represents  the 
warriors  looking  as  though  they  had  just  feasted  on  a  hearty  meal  at  some 
hostelry,  the  Indians  naked,  their  heads  decorated  with  splendid  war  bonnets 
of  eagle  feathers,  their  faces  and  bodies  gorgeously  painted  in  all  colors 
of  the  rainbow;  their  horses  fine,  fat  and  sleek,  painted  after  Indian  fashion 
in  different-colored  stripes  on  body,  head,  neck,  and  legs,  all  decorated 
with  jaunty  eagle  feathers  in  their  tails  and  manes ;  the  day  perfect ;  the 
lay  of  the  land  just  right;  the  troops  in  gay  uniforms  handsomely  mounted 
on  prancing  steeds,  all  indicating  that  everything  had  been  prepared  for  an 
ideal  battle. 

Let  me  give  a  brief  description  of  the  usual  conditions  of  a  real  battle 
with  Indians.  (jThe  trooper,  more  or  less  incapacitated  by  disease  incident 
to  long  exposed  camp  life,  was  usually  almost  worn  out  by  excessive  fatigue; 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR    HOSTILE   INDIANS. 


51 


his  dress  consisted  of  a  pair  of  boots  (no  stockings),  a  pair  of  old  military 
trousers  (no  drawers)  full  of  holes  and  saturated  with  grease  and  dirt,  a 
woolen  army  shirt,  blouse  and  cap.  His  rations  consisted  of  hard  bread 
(often  filled  with  worms),  rancid  bacon,  and  sometimes  pieces  of  fresh 
meat,  frequently  eaten  without  salt  or  pepper.  For  weeks,  and  sometimes 
for  months,  he  would  be  with- 
out shelter,  sleeping  on  the 
ground  under  the  broad  canopy 
of  heaven  in  all  kinds  of 
weather,  often  in  rain  or  snow, 
sometimes  with  only  a  blanket 
crawling  with  vermin  to  cover 
him,  half  dead  with  repeated 
night  watches  and  long  daily 
marches  over  arid  plains  or 
rugged  mountains.  Such  was 
the  trooper's  physical  condition.) 
His  horse,  after  subsisting  on 
grass  alone  for  a  long  time, 
and  drinking  stagnant  water, 
would  be  much  run  down  and 
weakened.  Such  was  his 
mount.  This  is  a  true  descrip- 
tion of  the  actual  trooper,  in 
my  time,  as  he  usually  engaged 
in  battle  with  the  Indians. 

The  engagement  once  open, 
neither  men  nor  animals  would 
get  rest  or  food  until  it  was 
over.  Sometimes  the  conflict 
lasted  the  entire  day  and  per- 
haps late  into  the  night,  tour- 
ing the  heat  of  the  battle  the 

hardships  which  the  trooper  had  undergone  for  weeks  past  might  le  tempo- 
rarily forgotten ;  and  as  there  was  no  rear  to  fall  to  in  a  fight  with  these 
red  men,  the  safest  place  for  him  was  at  the  front.) 

QThe  night  before  the  battle  (and  every  old  campaigner  will  bear  me  out  in 
this  assertion),  while  lying  on  the  ground,  probabty  in  the  rain  or  snow, 
trying  to  get  a  little  sleep,  the  troops  were  more  or  less  nervous  and  rest- 
less, being  up  and  down  the  whole  night.  When  the  battle  opened  there 


SPOTTED   WOLF — TYPICAL   CHTPPEWA. 


5'2  TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 

was  great  uneasiness  even  among  the  most  hardened  campaigners.  We 
were  always  very  anxious  from  the  time  the  engagement  opened  until  it 
was  finished,  for  the  Indians  generally  outnumbered  us  not  less  than  two 
to  one.  Once  wounded  and  left  on  the  field,  there  was  nothing  in  store 
for  a  white  man  but  torture  and  death.  The  thought  of  such  a  fate  added 
terror  to  distress,  though,  at  the  same  time,  it  nerved  us  to  desperation. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  Indian  warrior  when  on  the  war  path  rarely,  if 
ever,  rode  his  war  horse.  He  rode  another  horse,  leading  his  war  horse  to 
mount  when  going  into  actual  battle.  This  horse,  which  was  the  best 
owned  by  the  brave,  was  a  good  one,  and  was  generally  fantastically  deco- 
rated. When  entering  battle  the  warrior  wore  only  his  breech-cloth,  with 
sometimes  a  pair  of  moccasins;  as  he  was  accustomed  to  living  on  meat  only, 
he  had  probably  fared  plentifully  on  that  and  was  in  good  fighting  condi- 
tion. When  he  thought  the  battle  was  likely  to  be  a  desperate  one.  or  to 
the  death,  he  would  blacken  his  face  with  coals  from  the  fire,  or  paint  it  in  the 
most  hideous  manner,  to  make  himself  look  as  frightful  as  possible.  A  dis- 
tinguished brave  or  chief  would  occasionally  wear  a  war  bonnet  in  battle, 
but  this  was  rare,  as  it  was  a  great  incumbrance  while  fighting.  Every  war- 
rior carried  around  shield  from  two  to  two  and  a  half  feet  in  diameter,  which 
covered  his  back  or  breast,  and  which  by  a  dextrous  movement  of  the  body 
he  kept  between  himself  and  the  enemy.  This  shield  was  made  of  the 
thick  hide  of  a  buffalo  bull,  which  when  dried  in  the  sun  became  very  hard. 
The  ghield  was  slightly  convex  in  shape  and  covered  with  soft  buckskin. 
An  arrow  or  lance  would  uot  penetrate  it,  but  a  bullet  from  any  modern 
firearm  would  go  through  it  and  the  wearer  also. 

The  horse  he  rode  was  seldom  incumbered  with  equipment,  usually 
having  nothing  but  the  lariat  rope  by  which  he  was  guided,  and  carrying 
no  weight  but  the  rider  and  his  weapons.  The  animal  was  thoroughly 
trained  for  this  mode  of  fighting;  being  small  and  wiry,  he  was  amazingly 
quick  iu  his  movements,  as  compared  with  the  heavy  and  often  jaded 
horse  of  the  trooper.  Both  warrior  and  war  horse  seemed  to  enjo}T  the  bat- 
tle to  the  fullest  degree,  especially  when  they  had  the  best  of  it.  This  is 
a  true  picture  of  the  wild  Indian  as  he  usually  entered  battle. 

A  conflict  with  these  red  men  was  unlike  an  encounter  between  any  other 
forces  on  earth.  In  reality  it  was  a  combination  of  a  battle  and  a  fight. 
There  was  little  or  no  room  for  strategy  on  the  part  of  the  troops,  as  the 
Indian  would  attack  at  any  point  where  he  thought  he  could  succeed  by 
the  force  of  numbers,  and  the  troops  had  to  attack  the  Indian  wherever  they 
could  catch  him.  When  the  fight  was  in  the  open,  it  consisted  of  a  series 
of  charges  and  counter  charges.  The  Indian  was  generally  mounted,  and 


TWENTY    YEARS   AMONG   OUR    HOSTILE    INDIANS.  53 

the  troops  were  necessarily  so.  The  Indians  circled  around  and  around  the 
enemy  with  amazing,  dazzling  rapidity,  necessitating  constant  movement 
and  vigilance  on  the  part  of  the  troops  in  every  direction,  and  at  every  point. 
Sometimes  he  charged  close  up  to  them ;  discharging  his  arrows  or  other 
weapons,  and  retired  as  quickly  as  he  came.  Again  he  sat  erect  on  his  horse  for 
a  moment,  and  then  apparently  fell  as  if  dropped  by  a  bullet.  But  he  was 
still  there,  clinging  to  the  farther  side  of  the  horse,  discharging  his  weapons 
at  the  enemy  over  or  under  the  neck  of  the  animal  be  rode,  still  circling 
around  at  full  speed.  His  courage  was  unquestioned,  and  he  fought  with 
the  ferocity  of  a  tiger. 

(He  did  not  engage  in  a  battle  with  the  intention  merely  of  defeating  his 
foes;  his  only  thought  was  to  kill  them,  to  exterminate  them,  if  possible. 
Consequently,  there  was  no  quarter  asked  or  given  on  either  side;  the  Indian 
would  not  show  an^,  and  the  trooper,  in  self-defense,  could  not  give  any.) 

When  defeated,  or  fearing  defeat,  the  warriors  scattered  into  numerous 
small  bodies  and  vanished  in  various  directions.  Hence  it  was  impossible 
for  the  troops  to  pursue  them  successfully.  Should  they  attempt  to  do  so, 
they  would  lose  their  strong  point  of  vantage,  solid  serried  formation,  and 
miss  their  object  besides.  They  might  kill  a  few  Indians  here  or  there,  but 
even  this  was  next  to  impossible,  as  the  latter  went  into  battle  on  fresh  horses, 
the  best  and  fleetest  they  possessed.  Should  the  troops  break  in  order  to 
pursue  the  flying  groups  of  Indians,  they  might  be  cut  off,  or  surrounded  by 
the  Indians  and  killed  in  detail;  for  the  warriors  could  return  to  the  attack 
and  reunite  their  forces  as  rapidly  as  they  had  broken  up  a  short  time  before. 
By  their  method  of  signaling — which  was  understood  by  all  Indians — they 
made  it  perilous  for  the  pursuing  party,  which  was  liable  to  be  ambushed 
or  destroyed  at  an  unexpected  moment. 

When  an  Indian's  horse  was  shot  in  battle,  he  usually  had  another  at  a 
short  but  safe  distance,  tied  or  picketed,  and  was  soon  back  again  on  his  new 
mount.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the  hor;e  of  one  of  the  troops  was  shot  or  disabled, 
the  soldier  was  compelled  to  fight  and  defend  himself  on  foot,  as  best  be 
could.  If  some  of  his  comrades  were  killed,  he  might,  perhaps,  secure  a 
remount,  but  even  this  was  a  matter  of  difficulty.  In  short,  the  trooper  was 
at  a  disadvantage  in  almost  every  respect,  for  he  was  compelled  to  fight  the 
enemy  after  his  own  peculiar  tactics  and  terms. 

The  officers  rarely  urged  the  troops  during  an  engagement.  The  troopers 
knew  they  were  fighting  not  only  for  their  country,  but  for  their 
lives;  and  they  soon  learned  the  methods  of  Indian  warfare,  and  the  wiles 
and  ways  of  the  red  man.  The  only  absolute  requisite  for  the  soldier 


54  TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 

was  not  to  allow  his  wily  foe  to  draw  and  waste  his  fire,  or  tire  himself  or 
his  mount. 

When,  as  frequently  happened,  troops  attacked  an  Indian  encampment, 
the  manner  of  fighting  was  still  more  to  the  disadvantage  of  the  troopers. 
It  then  became  almost  a  hand-to-hand  conflict,  men,  women,  and  children 
fighting  with  fiendish  ferocity,  using  every  accessible  weapon,  firing 
through  peep-holes  in  their  lodges,  or  from  behind  bushes,  recks,  and 
every  object  that  afforded  concealment,  with  warriors  on  horseback  charging 
from  every  quarter  and  assailing  small  bodies  of  troops  whenever  they  could 
find  them  separated,  or  at  a  disadvantage.  Should  the  encampment  be  a 
large  one  it  was  all  the  more  difficult  and  dangerous  for  the  troopers,  for  the 
Indians  who  had  been  caught  in  their  lodges  and  unable  to  escape  would 
remain  where  they  were,  preparing  themselves  for  the  approach  of  the 
troops,  would  shoot  them  down  from  their  hiding-places. 

Indian  horses  were  usually  small,  and  the  Indian  being  an  expert  rider 
would  mount  and  ride  with  lightning  rapidity  to  a  bush,  rock,  or  other 
place  of  concealment,  dismount,  take  aim,  and  fire  a  number  of  times  with 
his  riiio  or  his  bow  and  arrow  at  his  enemy,  then  bound  on  his  horse  and 
be  off  again  like  a  flash.  Should  he  be  fortunate  enough  to  kill  an 
enemy  in  this  way,  he  immediately  rushed  in  and  struck  his  prostrate  victim, 
claiming  a  coup,  (a  brave  deed  or  act,  the  killing  of  an  enemy  or  securing 
his  scalp);  then  proceeded  to  scalp  him  at  once.  The  Indians  scalped 
every  person  killed  in  battle  whom  they  could  reach.  With  the  fresh 
scalp,  dripping  with  blood  and  dangling  from  his  hand,  he  would  again 
spring  on  his  horse  and  return  to  the  fight,  elated  by  his  success  and  stimu- 
lated to  further  efforts  by  his  bloody  trophy. 

The  burial  of  the  bodies  of  troopers  who  fell  in  battle  in  these  lonely  wilds 
was  a  saddening  spectacle.  The  remains  were  thrown  into  a  trench  or  large 
hole  in  the  ground ;  these  were  generally  dug  up  in  a  day  or  two  and  de- 
voured by  wolves  or  other  carnivorous  animals. 

Should  the  Indians  lose  a  number  of  their  warriors  in  battle,  the  families 
and  friends  of  the  dead  would  repair  to  the  spot  for  years  after,  where  they 
bitterly  wailed  and  mourned,  and  in  accordance  with  their  superstition 
"made  medicine"  on  the  scene  of  the  battlefield.  The  Indians  believed, 
and  were  taught  from  infancy,  that  death  on  the  battlefield  was  the  highest 
honor,  the  greatest  glory  that  could  be  attained  in  life. 

Should  they  perpetrate  a  massacre,  destroy  a  wagon  train,  or  commit  a 
great  outrage,  the  scene  of  their  villainy  was  for  some  time  afterward  the 
safest  place  that  a  white  man  could  select.  The  savages  under  such  circum- 
stances expected  chastisement  for  the  deed,  and  they  immediately  left  the 
scene  of  villainy  as  far  behind  them  as  possible. 


TWENTY    YEARS  AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS.  55 


CHAPTER   III. 

THE  INDIAN'S  MENTAL  FACULTIES— HIS  PERFECT  PHYSICAL  SENSES  AND 
BLUNTED  MORAL  NATURE  — HIS  GREAT  CRUELTY  —  SCALPS  AND 
SCALPING. 

The  Indian's  Preternatural  Cunning  and  Stunted  Intelligence — His  Highly  Developed 
Physical  Senses — His  Perfect  Vision  and  Acute  Hearing — Vanishing  like  an  Appa- 
rition— His  Keenness  in  following  a  Trail — His  Untiring  Patience — His  Intractable 
Nature  —  His  Instinctive  Cruelty  —  His  Suspicious  and  Distrustful  Nature — His 
Duplicity — Rarely  to  be  Trusted — The  Indian  of  Fiction,  and  the  Indian  of  Fact — 
Indian  Orators — Indian  Languages — The  Fate  of  Indian  Female  Captives — A  Living 
Death — How  Indians  Computed  Time — Mourning  for  their  Dead — Retui'n  of  a  War 
Party — How  the  Indian  Scalped  his  Foe — Customs  in  regard  to  Scalp-Taking — 
Jerking  the  Scalp  from  the  Skull — Looking  for  Nits — How  to  tell  an  Indian's  Scalp 
— Curing  a  Scalp — A  Ghastly  Spectacle. 

THE  Indian  has  been  frequently,  I  may  say  generally,  represented  as  hav- 
ing been  endowed  with  great  powers  of  observation  and  extraordinary  gifts 
of  natural  cunning.  This  is  only  partly  true.  SThe  Indian's  mental  facul- 
ties were  sharpened  by  the  necessities  of  his  existence ;  but,  like  all  other 
savage  people,  his  intellectual  gifts  were  limited.)  From  his  mode  of  life 
his  physical  senses  were  highly  developed.  His  vision  was  usually  perfect, 
and  his  sense  of  hearing  was  phenomenally  acute.  He  could  put  his  ear  to 
the  ground  and  detect  the  tramp  of  men,  horses  or  other  animals,  at  long 
distances.  He  could  appear  with  the  celerity  of  thought  and  vanish  like  an 
apparition.  In  following  a  trail  he  was  as  sure  as  fate.  What  to  the  ordi- 
nary observer  was  unnoticeable,  was  to  him  as  plain  as  a  well-beaten  path, 
and  his  patience  in  following  the  trail  was  untiring.  A  broken  twig,  an 
upturned  stone,  or  the  appearance  of  the  grass  where  trodden,  had  for  him  a 
significant  meaning.  He  would  find  evidences  of  the  presence  of  man  or 
animal  where  the  white  man  could  not  detect  a  sign.  His  intuitive  percep- 
tions enabled  him  to  arrive  quickly  at  a  conclusion  from  the  lay  of  the  land 
or  other  material  things.  (He  depended  upon  his  natural  animal  instinct 
more  than  on  human  judgment.  Yet,  granting  his  superiority  in  these  and 
other  ways,  he  could  not  compete  with  civilized  man.\ 

There  was  in  the  Indian  nature  a  trait  of  intractability  not  found  in  any 


56 


TWENTY    YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 


other  portion  of  the  human  race.  Unlike  the  negro,  he  could  not  be  en- 
slaved. The  Spaniards  in  the  early  clays  of  discovery  endeavored  to  enslave 
the  Indian;  the  result  was  that  he  died  in  his  chains.  He  was  the  same 
when  I  first  knew  him  as  he  was  then — unamenable  to  law,  and  impatient 
of  restraint.  (So  far  he  had  shown  himself  incapable  of  even  a  veneer  of 
civilization.  He  might  be  brought  up  in  the  midst  of  civilized  surroundings 
and  educated,  but  at  the  first  opportunity  he  would  relapse  into  his  original 
barbarism. 

Coupled  with  his  barbarous  instincts,  or  rather  with  a  part  of  them,  was 

his  natural  inclination  to 
cruelty.  It  has  been  said 
that  all  savage  races  are  like 
children,  in  that  they  have 
no  adequate  conception  of 
suffering  or  pain  endured  by 
others.  They  were  entirely 
devoid  of  sympathy.  The 
controlling  instinct  of  the 
Indian  was  to  kill. 

The   Indian   could   hardly 
be  said  to  have  possessed  any 
moral    nature.     In   the   first 
place,    he    had    no    abstract 
ideas.     He  could  understand 
nothing  unless  it  appeared  to 
him  in  the  concrete.     There 
were      no     words      in     his 
vice,    generosity,    hospitality, 
to  him   unknown.     He  only 


WARRIOR  WITH  BEAR  CLAW  NECKLACE — WAR 
PAINTING. 


language  to  express  moral  ideas.  Virtue, 
magnanimity,  and  all  cognate  words  were 
believed  what  he  saw  or  felt. 

He  was  naturally  distrustful.  This  was  one  of  the  impediments  encoun- 
tered in  the  work  of  Indian  civilization.  He  had  been  for  ages  the  slave  of 
heredity  and  environment,  and  he  suspected  an  enemy  everywhere.  Of  all 
the  savage  races  the  Indian  was  the  only  one  who  never  tried  to  imitate  the 
white  man. 

Any  ore  knowing  his  character  would  not  trust  him  in  any  way.  He 
would  not  do  right  from  moral  impulse,  for  the  reason,  as  already  observed, 
that  his  moral  perceptions  were  limited  or  undeveloped.  To  his  mind  every- 
thing was  right  that  redounded  to  his  own  interest  if  he  could  successfully 
perform  it;  and  anything  was  wrong  (or  bad,  as  he  called  it)  if  he  failed. 


TWENTY    YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS.  5? 

His  moral  standard  was  measured   by  the  difference  between  success  and 
failure. 

He  was  the  very  impersonation  of  duplicity.  He  might  enter  the  cabin 
of  a  frontiersman,  or  a  military  fort,  or  an  Indian  agency,  and  listen  to  all 
that  was  said,  without  giving  the  slightest  evidence  that  he  understood  what 
he  heard,  or  that  he  was  taking  notice  of  his  surroundings.  In  his  attitude 
and  facial  expression,  he  might  appear  as  taciturn  as  a  Sphynx,  and  yet  un- 
derstand every  word  that  was  uttered  and  be  planning  a  murderous  raid  at 
the  same  moment. 

Occasionall}7,  it  is  true,  the  Indian  evinced  some  commendable  traits  of 
character.  But  these  were  the  exception  to  the  rule.  Doubtless  there  are 
also  instances  of  truthfulness  and  fidelity  on  Lis  part.  But  granting  this, 
it  is  still  an  indisputable  fact  that  the  Indian,  of  all  uncivilized  people,  has 
offered  the  greatest  degree  of  opposition  to  the  influences  of  civilization.) 

Apropos  of  the  intellectual  qualities  of  the  Indian,  a  prevailing  idea  is  that 
he  was  a  master  of  oratory.  We  read  imaginary  speeches  of  Indian  chiefs 
in  school  books,  and  untrustworthy  sources,  then  jump  to  the  conclusion  that 
the  Red  Man  was  a  wonderfully  eloquent  though  untutored  child  of  nature. 
Nothing  could  be  more  foreign  to  the  fact.  The  Indian  vocabulary  was 
extremely  limited,  and  was  confined  to  material  ideas.  All  the  poetic  rhap- 
sody and  oratorical  fireworks  attributed  to  him  are  but  the  delusion  of 
writers  who  have  given  free  rein  to  their  imagination.  The  alleged  master- 
ful speeches  at  council-fires,  and  pathetic  appeals  to  the  justice  of  the  white 
man,  protesting  against  intrusion  on  Indian  hunting  grounds,  belong  to  fic- 
tion, not  to  fact. 

(it  is  difficult  to  place  the  Indian  intellectually.  Other  savage  races  when 
brought  within  the  environment  of  civilization  have  afforded  brilliant  in- 
stances of  individual  effort,  but  the  Indian  never.  There  is  no  instance  in 
the  four  hundred  years  of  American  history  of  an  Indian  who  attained 
greatness  through  the  channels  of  civilization.  The  few  Indians  who  stand 
out  prominently  in  our  history  from  King  Philip  down  to  Sitting  Bull, 
achieved  greatness  not  by  adopting  the  ways  of  the  white  man,  but  by 
opposing  them. 

The  Indian  was  proud  by  nature.  He  was  animal  in  his  instinct?,  and 
he  neither  knew  nor  cared  about  anything  not  connected  with  his  material 
wants.  He  had  an  insatiable  desire  to  excel.  He  wanted  to  be  the  bravest 
brave  in  his  tribe.  He  resented  injustice,  even  t  tough  he  did  not  practice 
justice  himself.  ^ 

The  Indian  nations  differed  from  most  other  savage  people  in  that  each 
had  a  different  language.  Except  in  a  few  instances  there  were  no  dialects 


5S  TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG  OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 

among  the  different  nations.  The  great  Athabascan  family,  comprising  as 
it  did  the  Zunis,  who  attained  the  highest  degree  of  civilization  of  any  of  its 
branches,  the  Mohaves,  the  Navajoes,  and  the  Apaches,  could  communicate 
with  each  other  through  their  somewhat  varying  dialect.  But  no  distinct 
nation  that  I  have  ever  known  would  communicate  in  the  oral  language  of 
the  other.  Neither  would  they  intermarry  with  one  another,  although  some- 
times it  occurred  that  a  female  captive,  especially  if  young  and  handsome, 
became  the  wife  of  the  man  who  captured  her.  Even  then  her  life 
was  little  more  than  a  living  death,  as  the  women  of  the  nation  treated  their 
captive  sisters  with  great  severity  and  contempt,  although  they  might  be  the 
wives  of  prominent  chiefs. 

West  of  the  Mississippi  River  there  were  many  distinct  languages  spoken 
by  the  various  Indian  nations.  This  diversity  of  languages  explains  the 
existence  of  their  sign  language,  which  I  shall  describe  in  another  chapter. 
This  was  the  only  common  means  of  communication  that  they  possessed; 
though  it  varied  somewhat  among  the  different  nations  they  could  nearly 
all  understand  it. 

In  conversation,  both  oral  and  by  signs,  all  Indians  were  obscene  to  a 
degree  unknown  to  any  other  people.  They  seemed  to  have  no  conception 
of  vulgarity,  obscenity,  or  decency.  Frequently  the  most  revolting  and  dis- 
gusting subjects  formed  the  topic  of  their  common  conversation.  They 
would  sit  in  large  numbers  listening  to  stories  told  by  different  persons, 
some  of  which  were  obscene  beyond  description.  The  stories  were  not 
witty  or  of  interest  to  the  listeners,  but  idle,  vulgar  talk.  Men,  women  and 
children  listened  to  these  stories  with  the  utmost  stoicism,  their  object  being 
to  retain  as  much  of  them  as  possible  that  they  themselves  might  be  able  to 
repeat  them  to  others. 

The  Indian  was  never  demonstrative.  He  rarely  manifested  surprise, 
He  was  reticent  by  nature ;  what  he  could  not  understand  did  not  trouble 
him  in  the  least.  A  few  things,  however,  excited  his  admiration  beyond  the 
power  of  silence.  One  of  these  was  the  mystery  of  how  the  white  man  could 
read.  He  imagined  that  the  paper  talked  to  the  white  man,  and  the  reason 
it  did  not  talk  to  an  Indian  was  a  puzzle  he  could  not  solve.  I  have 
seen  Indians  pore  over  an  old  newspaper  by  the  hour,  turn  it  upside  down 
and  inside  out,  manipulate  it  in  every  conceivable  manner,  then  throw  it 
away  in  disgust  because  it  did  not  talk  to  them  as  to  the  white  man. 

The  Indian  had  no  regular  method  of  computing  time.  He  knew  neither 
years,  months,  weeks,  nor  days.  He  counted  days  by  the  number  of 
"sleeps,"  that  is,  nights;  months  by  the  number  of  moons;  and  longer  inter- 
vals by  the  recurrence  of  winter  and  summer.  To  him  every  day  was  the 
same;  he  had  neither  Sundays  nor  week  days. 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 


59 


He  was  very  much  surprised  to  see  his  civilized  brother  look  at  his  watch 
to  ascertain  the  time  of  day.  I  have  seen  Indians  stare  at  a  watch  for 
hours,  in  utter  amazement.  We  could  not  make  them  understand  how,  by 
looking  at  a  watch,  we  could  tell  precisely  where  the  sun  was  in  the  sky, 
although  not  visible  at  the  time. 

Some  of  the  nations  or  tribes  cut  their  hair,  namely,  the  Osages,  Otoes, 
Pawnees,  lowas,  Sacs  and  Foxes.  Some  of  them  cut  it  off  from  both  sides 
of  the  head,  leaving  only  one  stiff  tuft,  two  or  three  inches  in  length  and  a 
couple  of  inches  in  width,  on  the  top  of  the  head  from  the  forehead  back  to 
the  scalp  lock.  All  the  Indians  who  did  this  lived  along  the  Missouri  River 
above  the  mouth  of  the  Kansas  River.  How  they  acquired  this  custom  I 
am  unable  to  state.  It  probably  originated  among  themselves.  The  cus- 
tom of  warriors  cutting  their 
hair  as  a  sign  of  mourning 
differed  from  that  which  pre- 
vailed among  those  whom  I 
have  quoted.  An  Indian  on 
losing  a  wife  or  child  would 
sometimes  cut  off  all  his  hair 
except  the  scalp  lock.  In 
those  days  it  was  difficult  for 
Indians  to  obtain  scissors,  as 
the  trad  ing  posts  were  widely 
scattered.  Accordingly,  they 
cut  their  hair  with  a  knife,  or 
burned  it,  leaving  it  uneven 
and  ragged.  These  are  the  only 
instances  among  North  Amer- 
ican Indians  where  the  hair 
was  cut  short,  it  being  the 
general  custom  to  let  it  grow  in  the  most  abundant  profusion.  An  Indian 
woman  sometimes  mourned  the  loss  of  a  near  relative  by  cutting  off  one  of 
her  braids;  then  unbraiding  the  other  she  would  let  it  hang  down  her  back, 
and  over  her  shoulder  in  front. 

The  surest  evidence  that  a  scalp  when  taken  was  really  that  of  an  Indian 
was  the  fact  that  the  hairs  were  covered  with  nits.  Any  person  acquainted 
with  Indians  would  always  look  for  these  nits  to  be  assured  that  it  was  the 
scalp  lock  of  an  Indian.  Sometimes  the  hair  of  the  scalp  was  coarse  and  a 
tuft  of  a  horse's  tail  might  be  substituted  for  it;  but  the  presence  of  these 
nits  in  the  hair  was  proof  positive  that  the  scalp  lock  was  that  of  an  Indian. 


MEDICINE   MAN  IN  MOURNING — SHOWING   MANNER 
OF   CUTTING   THE   HAIR   FOR  MOURNING. 


6U  TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 

Tho  manner  of  taking  a  scalp  in  battle  was  to  cut  with  a  knife,  around 
the  braid  of  the  scalp  lock,  a  circle  two  or  three  inches  in  diameter,  and  then 
with  a  jerk  tear  it  from  the  skull.  Occasionally,  especially  if  not  pressed 
by  danger,  and  there  was  plenty  of  time,  be  would  cut  around  the  entire 
scalp,  tearing  it  from  the  head.  Such  a  scalp  was  often  divided  into 
numerous  small  locks,  which  were  used  in  ornamenting  his  war  shirt  or  other 
personal  belongings.  Half  a  dozen  or  more  scalp  locks  often  represented 
but  a  single  victim.  A  few  people  who  have  been  scalped  by  the  savages, 
after  they  were  supposed  to  be  dead,  have  recovered,  but  were  great  sufferers 
ever  after. 

The  majority  of  Indians  had  a  peculiar  custom  in  relation  to  claiming  the 
scalp.  The  one  who  first  struck  an  enemy  after  he  was  down,  and  supposed 
to  be  dead,  could  claim  the  scalp,  although  the  person  killing  him  had  made 
every  effort  to  strike  the  prostrate  body  and  demand  the  trophy.  This  cus- 
tom I  attribute  to  the  warrior's  desire  to  be  the  first  to  strike  the  enemy,  so 
that  he  could  claim  to  be  in  advance  of  all  others  in  the  battle,  and  therefore 
the  foremost  brave. 

Scalps  when  taken  in  this  way  were  the  personal  property  of  the 
individual  who  struck  the  dead  body  first;  they  were  kept  and  exhibited  by 
him  and  his  family  as  a  token  of  bravery.  They  would  take  a  twig  off  a 
bush  and  make  a  hoop  five  or  six  inches  in  diameter;  then  thongs  of  raw- 
hide were  put  through  the  scalp  around  the  edges  and  fastened  to  the  inside 
of  the  hoop,  thus  stretching  the  scalp  tight,  when  it  was  left  to  dry. 
When  a  scalp  dance  took  place,  these  scalps,  stretched  in  their  tiny  hoops, 
and  frequently  ornamented  with  fur  and  other  articles,  were  fastened  to  long 
poles,  which  the  women  carried  in  an  upright  position.  Scalp  dances  were 
always  held  on  the  return  of  a  victorious  war  party,  especially  if,  in  addi- 
tion to  scalps,  it  had  secured  a  large  amount  of  booty  in  the  way  of  horses 
and  mules. 

When  one  Indian  scalped  another  who  had  a  feather  in  his  scalp  lock,  this 
feather  was  fastened  to  the  scalp,  and  dangled  from  the  pole  on  which  the 
trophy  was  carried.  Such  a  scalp  was  the  special  admiration  of  the  dancers, 
for  the  presence  of  the  feather  was  supposed  to  be  evidence  of  the  superior 
bravery  of  the  slain,  and  the  still  greater  bravery  of  the  captor. 


TWENTY    YEARS  AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS.  61 


CHAPTEE  IV. 

INDIAN  SMOKES  AND  SMOKERS— QUEER  CUSTOMS  AND  SUPERSTITIONS- 
HOW  ANIMALS  WERE  AFFECTED  BY  THE  UNSEEN  PRESENCE  OF 
INDIANS. 

Method  of  Dressing  and  Decorating  the  Hair — The  Scalp  Lock — Keeping  It  Greased, 
Smooth,  and  Shiny — Combs  made  from  Weeds — Curious  Ornamentations — A  Beard- 
less Race — Manner  of  Smoking  the  Indian  Pipe — Method  of  Lighting  the  Pij>e — 
Indian  Surprise  on  First  Seeing  Matches— Smoking  and  Praying  to  Two  Great 
Spirits,  the  Good  and  the  Bad  God — Queer  Superstitions — Killikinick,  or  Indian 
Tobacco — Method  of  Preparing  It  for  Smoking — Its  Strong  and  Lasting  Odor 
— How  Animals  Detected  the  Approach  of  Indians  in  the  Night — Olfactory  Sensi- 
tiveness of  Horses  and  Mules — Smelling  Indians  at  a  Long  Distance — Red  Pipe- 
Stone — Curious  Legend  as  to  its  Origin — The  Intermingling  of  the  Blood  of  Whites 
and  Indians — Pipe  Ornamentation — A  Marvel  of  Beauty — A  Neutral  Ground  for  all 
Indian  Nations — Prehistoric  Gatherings. 

I  HAVE  never  seen  a  North  American  Indian  who  was  bald-headed. 
Their  hair  was  coarse,  luxuriant,  black,  and  straight.  The  men  and 
women  plaited  it  in  two  plaits  as  a  schoolgirl  wears  it,  letting  it  hang  over 
both  shoulders.  These  plaits  were  frequently  covered  with  the  fur  of  the 
beaver  or  otter,  cut  in  strips  from  one  to  two  inches  wide. 

Men  and  women  alike  usually  parted  their  hair  in  the  middle,  the  end  of 
the  part  on  the  man's  head  reaching  back  to  the  scalp  lock.  This  scalp  lock 
was  two  or  three  inches  in  diameter,  and  was  formed  of  the  hair  drawn 
together  in  a  circle  at  the  crown  of  the  head.  It  was  plaited  in  a  braid  by 
itself,  to  which  the  men  sometimes  attached  a  strap  ornamented  with  tin  or 
silver  disks,  a  brass  button  being  often  fastened  in  the  middle  of  each.  The 
disks  were  fastened  on  the  strap  as  close  together  as  possible  without  touch- 
ing, the  first  disk  next  to  the  scalp  lock  being  as  large  as  an  ordinary  teacup 
and  diminishing  in  size  until  they  reached  the  end  of  the  strap,  which  fre- 
quently extended  to  the  heels  of  the  wearer,  the  last  disk  being  not  larger 
than  a  twenty-five  cent  piece.  Sometimes  the  disks  were  uniform  in  size. 
Men  did  not  cut  their  scalp  locks,  as  it  was  considered  an  act  of  cowardice 
to  deprive  themselves  of  this  appendage.  Indian  women  did  not  wear  scalp 
locks,  but  Indian  male  children  had  a  scalp  lock  from  the  time  they  first 
began  to  dress  their  hair.  The  more  intelligent  Indians,  such  as  the  Chey- 
ennes,  Sioux,  Assiniboins,  and  Crows,  took  great  care  of  their  hair,  oiling  it 


62 


TWENTY    YEARS  AMONG  OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 


and  keeping  it  smooth  and  shiny,  though  not  clean.  When  they  had  no 
combs  they  would  use  a  substitute.  The  stem  of  a  weed  on  which  were 
prickly  points  was  often  used  for  this  purpose.  They  also  used  a  straight 
stick  or  pointed  bone  which,  after  a  manner,  would  separate  and  comb  the 
hair.  As  they  only  un  braided  their  hair  at  long  intervals,  it  was  not  a 
great  inconvenience  to  be  without  a  comb.  After  they  were  able  to  secure 
combs  from  the  whites,  they  were  highly  prized,  and  they  were  rarely 
without  them. 

The  Indians  did  not  have  beards.     I  have  never  seen  an  Indian  with  more 

than  a  few  straggling  hairs 
which  would  sometimes  ap- 
pear on  his  face,  and  which 
he  would  immediately  pro- 
ceed to  pluck  out  with  his 
thumb  and  fingers;  or  if  he 
could  secure  a  pair  of  tweez- 
ers, he  would  pluck  at  every 
hair  as  it  made  its  appear- 
ance, continuing  the  opera- 
tion for  weeks  and  months, 
until  the  beard  was  entirely 
eradicated.  The  eyebrows 
and  eyelashes  of  both  sexes 
were  sparse  and  thin.  It 
was  a  rare  thing  to  find  any 
hair  on  the  body  of  either 
sex.  They  were,  as  a  rule, 
a  hairless  people,  but  when 
hair  made  its  appearance  on 

any  part  of  their  bodies,  except  the  head,  they  proceeded  to  pluck  it  out  and 
kept  at  it  patiently  and  persistently  until  the  roots  were  destroyed. 

I  have  never  known  an  Indian  to  wear  a  ring  in  his  nose,  as  they  are 
sometimes  represented  in  pictures. 

The  men  would  generally  sit  cross- legged  like  tailors  when  in  their  lodges 
or  tepees,  or  elsewhere  on  the  ground.  The  women  would  sit  on  their  legs, 
with  their  feet  together  on  one  side  or  the  other,  rarely  ever  resting  on  their 
haunches.  When  a  number  of  Indian  men  met  they  would  squat  on  their 
haunches,  or  sit  cross-legged  in  a  circle,  making  the  circle  large  or  small 
enough  to  be  complete,  in  which  position  they  would  remain  and  smoke  for 
hours.  If  there  was  a  circle  of  sixty  or  seventy-five,  they  would  have  from 


MANY  HOENS,  GROS  VENTRE  INDIAN,  WITH  EAR  PEN- 
DANTS OF  IROQUOIS  SHELLS  TIPPED 
WITH    LARGE    SHELL. 


TWENTY    YEARS   AMONG  OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS.  63 

fifteen  to  twenty-five  pipes  going  at  a  time.  After  lighting  a  pipe,  each 
Indian,  as  the  pipe  was  passed  to  him,  would  take  one  or  two  long  whiffs, 
then  blowing  the  smoke  up  toward  the  sky,  holding  the  bowl  in  an  inclined 
position  with  the  end  of  the  stem  that  goes  in  the  mouth  toward  the  ground, 
and  lifting  up  his  head  would  say  a  prayer.  All  of  these  prayers  were 
about  of  the  same  trend,  thus:  "This  smoke  I  hope  will  go  to  my  Great 
Creator,  who  lives  in  the  clouds,  and  who  is  very  good  to  me.  I  hope  he 
will  take  pity  on  me  and  my  family,  and  send  me  something  to  eat  and 
wear."  With  the  other  end  pointed  toward  the  earth,  be  would  say:  "This 
goes  to  the  bad  spirit,  who  I  hope  will  not  trouble  me  or  make  any  disease." 
Indians  were  all  superstitious.  One  might  have  a  superstition, — his  "  med- 
icine," as  he  termed  it, — not  to  pass  the  pipe  while  smoking  to  more  than 
one,  two,  three,  or  more  men  to  his  left.  When  his  pipe  was  passed  as  far 
as  his  "medicine"  demanded,  it  was  returned  by  the  last  smoker  to  the 
man  on  his  right,  who  handed  it  to  the  next  man,  and  so  on,  until  it 
reached  the  one  who  started  it.  Hence,  there  were  many  pipes  going 
all  the  time.  The  pipe  was  never  smoked  when  it  was  being  passed 
from  left  to  right.  Each  man  had  his  own  bag  of  "  killikinick,"  or 
tobacco. 

When  the  pipe  came  to  the  smoker  with  the  contents  gone,  he  immedi- 
ately proceeded  to  clean,  fill, and  start  it  again.  For  cleaning  these  pipes 
every  man  carried  a  stick  about  the  size  of  a  lead  pencil.  The  pipe  was  lit 
with  a  lighted  ember,  matches  being  rare  among  the  Indians  in  those  days. 
When  they  first  saw  a  match  and  the  manner  in  which  it  was  lighted,  by 
simply  scratching  it,  their  surprise  was  be}'ond  expression. 

Killikinick  was  the  inner  bark  or  pulp  of  the  red  willow.  It  lies  next  to 
the  wood  and  immediately  under  the  bark.  The  bark  was  first  removed, 
then  the  pulp  was  scraped  off  with  a  knife  and  laid  on  the  green  stick  from 
which  it  had  been  taken,  and  held  over  the  fire  and  dried.  It  was  then  cut 
up  fine  and  was  ready  for  use.  When  the  Indians  had  tobacco,  killikinick 
was  mixed  with  it  for  smoking.  The  flavor  as  well  as  the  odor  of  this  red 
willow  pulp  was  pleasant,  and  it  had  none  of  the  injurious  qualities  of 
tobacco. 

Among  the  Northern  Indians  the  women  did  not  smoke.  Some  of  those 
living  along  the  Rio  Grande,  in  Texas  and  in  Arizona,  made  cigarettes  of 
coarse  tobacco  rolled  in  brown  paper  or  in  the  inner  leaf  of  the  corn  husk. 
They  acquired  this  habit  from  their  Mexican  neighbors. 

The  smoke  of  mixed  tobacco  and  killikinick  made  a  sweet  and  pleasant 
odor.  The  Indian's  person  and  all  his  belongings  were  completely  saturated 
with  it,  and  it  lasted  for  a  long  time.  Horses,  and  particularly  mules, 


64  TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG  OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 

whose  sense  of  smell  is  very  acute,  would  scent  an  Indian  by  this  odor  at  a 
long  distance.  It  caused  them  to  become  uneasy  and  constantly  look  in  the 
direction  from  whence  the  odor  came.  Animals,  at  the  approach  of  Indians, 
would  always  get  up  and  become  restless  at  unusual  times  in  the  night, 
when  the  command  was  immediately  put  in  fighting  condition.  In  the 
morning  we  were  sure  to  discover  signs  of  Indians. 

Animals  when  on  the  march  and  rather  tired,  if  picketed  or  sidelined,  or 
tied  to  the  picket  rope,  would  usually  lie  down  when  the  camp  grew  quiet, 
about  ten  o'clock  at  night,  and  sleep  for  a  half  or  three-quarters  of  an  hour; 
then  all  would  awake,  rise,  and  remain  in  that  position  until  about  two 
o'clock,  when  they  would  lie  down  again,  and  sleep  for  probably  an  hour. 
Every  company  of  cavalry  carried  a  picket  rope.  It  was  about  one  and  a 
half  inches  in  diameter,  and  two  hundred,  or  two  hundred  and  fifty  feet 
long.  A  sufficient  length  of  it  was  stretched  to  hold  all  the  animals,  which 
were  tied  to  it  on  both  sides,  for  safety  by  day  or  night.  Should  they  get 
up  at  any  other  time  in  the  night  this  unusual  movement  would  attract  our 
attention,  and  we  knew  that  Indians  were  near. 

The  Indian  pipe  was  a  marvel  of  beauty.  There  is  only  one  known 
quarry  in  the  world  where  the  red  pipestone  clay  can  be  had,  and  it  is 
located  in  Minnesota.  The  clay  when  first  found  is  soft  and  can  be  cut  with 
a  knife.  The  Indians  living  in  that  locality  were  expert  in  carving  and 
making  pipes  which  were  highly  prized  by  them.  I  have  in  my  possession 
the  most  beautiful  specimen  I  have  ever  seen.  It  was  smoked  at  the  treaty 
of  peace  at  Fort  Laramie,  between  Colonel  W.  E.  Maynadier  and  Red 
Cloud,  and  cost  forty-five  horses.  The  clay  stem  of  this  magnificent  pipe  is 
ten  inches  in  length;  the  bowl,  which  stands  upright,  is  four  inches  in 
height;  the  hole  in  the  bowl  for  the  tobacco  is  half  an  inch  in  diameter,  and 
the  hole  in  the  clay  part  of  the  stem  a  little  more  than  three- eighths  of  an 
inch  in  diameter.  The  pipe  throughout  its  entire  length  is  formed  of  two 
different  colors  of  the  stone,  one  side  of  it  being  a  deep  red,  the  other  a  pale 
red,  the  colors  intermingling,  and  forming  a  beautiful  mottle,  after  the  style 
of  a  meerschaum  pipe  when  just  commencing  to  color.  Those  accustomed 
to  Indian  paraphernalia,  who  have  examined  this  pipe,  pronounce  it  the  fin- 
est specimen  they  have  ever  seen.  The  Indians  had  a  tradition  that  where 
the  red  pipestone  quarry  is  located  a  fierce  battle  was  fought  between  the 
whites  and  Indians  a  long  time  ago,  in  which  a  great  many  red  men  were 
killed,  and  that  their  blood  soaked  into  the  ground,  thus  forming  the  red 
pipestone.  But  of  the  piece  of  stone  in  this  pipe,  the  legend  recites  that  the 
blood  of  some  whites  who  were  killed  in  this  battle  sank  into  the  ground 
and  intermingled  with  the  blood  of  the  red  men,  thus  giving  the  two  colors, 


RED   CLOUD,    THE   NOTED   SIOUX   CHIEF. 
Twenty  Years  Among  Our  Hostile  Indians. 


Page  65 


66  TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 

the  pale  red  and  the  very  dark  red.  This  legend  gives  an  idea  of  Indian 
tradition. 

Pipes  made  from  this  stone  are  susceptible  of  a  very  high  polish,  and  after 
having  been  smoked  for  a  time,  become  much  darker,  and  rich  in  color  like 
the  meerschaum.  The  wooden  stem  to  such  pipes,  made  of  hard  wood,  was 
generally  from  one  and  one-half  to  two  feet  in  length,  about  one-half  to 
three-quarters  of  an  inch  in  thickness,  one  and  one-half  inches  in  width  the 
whole  length,  and  oval  or  flat  in  shape.  On  either  end  was  a  nipple,  one 
for  insertion  in  the  pipe,  the  other  for  the  smoker's  mouth.  An  Indian 
never  wet  the  nipple  on  the  end  of  his  pipe  stem  when  smoking,  as  he  only 
held  it  between  the  lips.  Each  smoker  inhaled  the  smoke  into  his  lungs, 
and  blew  it  out  of  his  nostrils  and  mouth  in  clouds,  leaving  the  nipple  as 
dry  as  if  it  had  come  out  of  an  oven.  Many  of  these  pipe  stems  were  artis- 
tically decorated  with  buckskin  covers,  upon  which  were  handsomely  worked 
ornamental  designs  in  beads  of  many  colors,  or  variegated  porcupine  quills. 
Some  of  the  stems  were  carved  into  the  figures  of  animals,  birds,  and  other 
original  devices.  They  would  hardly  be  called  artistic  by  a  modern  carver, 
but  for  Indians  the  carving  was  quite  well  done. 

On  the  site  of  the  quarry,  according  to  Indian  tradition,  the  Great  Spirit 
once  assembled  all  the  Indian  nations,  and  breaking  a  piece  from  the  rock 
fashioned  a  huge  pipe  by  rolling  it  in  his  hands.  He  then  smoked  it  over 
them  to  the  north,  south,  east  and  west,  told  them  that  the  red  stone  was 
composed  of  their  flesh  and  blood,  and  that  the  quarry  belonged  to  all  of 
them  and  was  to  be  used  for  pipes  of  peace,  and  that  all,  even  the  bitterest 
enemies,  must  meet  as  brothers  on  its  ground.  Giving  a  final  whiff,  the 
Spirit's  head  disappeared  in  a  great  cloud  of  smoke  and  the  stone  for  several 
miles  around  was  melted  and  glazed.  Two  women,  the  guardian  spirits  of 
the  place,  then  descended  into  the  large  ovens  that  opened  beneath,  and  they 
ever  afterward  answered  the  prayers  and  invocations  of  the  "medicine  men" 
who  visited  this  spot. 

This  and  other  legends  connected  with  the  place  were  spread  throughout 
nearly  all  the  Indian  nations,  and  numerous  excavations  in  the  rock,  marks, 
hieroglyphics,  and  other  signs,  testify  that  this  spot  was  frequented  by 
many  Indian  people  from  a  very  remote  period.  Here  they  met  in  peace 
and  held  their  savage  instincts  in  check,  in  their  fear  of  the  wrath  of  the 
Great  Spirit. 

The  pipes  made  from  this  material  were  found  among  nearly  all  the 
Indian  nations  of  the  North  American  continent,  and  were  highly  prized  by 
them.  Parties  from  many  nations  made  annual  pilgrimages  to  this  quarry 
to  procure  material  for  pipes.  It  differs  from  any  other  substance  known 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 


67 


to  science,  and  is  capable  of  receiving  a  lustre  superior  to  and  unlike  that 
of  any  other  material.  Component  parts  of  this  material,  as  given  by  Gov- 
ernment experts,  are  as  follows : 


Silicia. 46 

Alumina 28 

Moisture 9 

Peroxide  of  Iron. .  5 


Carbonate  of  Lime 3 

Copper 2 

Magnesia 7 


The  Indians  procured  this  stone  by  digging  through  the  soil  and  slate  to 
the  sub-stratum  in  front  of  the  wall  for  a  depth  of  four  or  five  feet.  Here 
they  broke  off  the  stone  in  such  quantities  as  they  required  for  making  their 
pipes. 


THE   ONE  WHO   HITS   THE  BEAR — WITH  RED   STONE 

PIPE   AND   PIPE    STEM — DECORATED  WITH 

SCALPS—BLACK-FOOT  INDIAN. 


6g  TWENTY    YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 


CHAPTER  V. 

INDIAN   INQUISITIVENESS  AND    CUNNING— CEUEL  TREATMENT   OF  PRISON- 
ERS—THE FATE  OF  WHITE  CAPTIVE  WOMEN. 

Indian  Habits  and  Customs — Marvelous  Instinct  of  the  Indian — His  Inquisitiveness — No 
Idea  of  Morality,  or  of  Pight  and  Wrong — Power  of  the  Chief — The  Medicine  Man 
— Making  Medicine — Medicine  Horses  and  Medicine  Dogs— How  the  Women  made 
Medicine — The  Medicines  of  Different  Nations  and  Tribes — How  and  why  they 
were  selected — Women  standing  in  Cold  Water  while  making  Medicine — Cutting 
their  Arms  and  Legs  with  a  Knife — The  Greater  the  Scar,  the  Greater  the  Medi- 
cine— Striking  the  Water  with  their  Hands  and  Feet — Broken  Medicine — Treatment 
of  Prisoners — Captive  Indian  Women — A  Living  Death — An  Incident  on  Green 
River_Indian  Treatment  of  White  Captive  Women. 

SOME  of  the  faculties  of  the  wild  Indians  were  much  developed  and  sharp- 
ened. They  did  not  jump  to  conclusions,  but  arrived  at  them  by  a  keen 
process  of  reasoning  after  their  own  fashion.  Their  mental  resources  were 
naturally  limited,  but  in  those  practices  which  their  mode  of  life  compelled 
them  to  adopt  and  on  which  their  existence  depended,  they  became  very  pro- 
ficient. In  traveling  over  the  trackless  plains  and  rugged  mountains  they 
never  lost  their  way;  as  they  had  no  compass  or  means  of  guiding  them- 
selves, except  by  instinct,  they  would  go  by  the  shortest  route  from  place  to 
place  with  remarkable  precision  and  not  miss  their  objective  point. 

Another  peculiarity  was  their  inquisitiveness.  They  desired  to  know  at 
all  times  what  was  going  on  about  them;  although  they  would  sit  apparently 
unconcerned,  yet  all  their  faculties  were  strained  to  the  utmost  to  learn  what 
was  going  on  and  what  was  being  said. 

Morality,  as  we  understand  it,  was  unknown  among  them.  Having  no 
conception  of  right  and  wrong,  murder  was  not  considered  a  crime.  Theft 
from  strangers  was  considered  an  act  of  cunning.  The  more  adroit  the  thief 
the  more  he  was  respected.  Among  their  own  people,  however,  theft  was 
rare,  for  their  individual  possessions  were  small,  and  every  one  knew  what 
bis  neighbor  owned.  Furthermore,  it  was  almost  impossible  for  the  thief 
to  conceal  any  article  stolen  from  one  of  his  own  tribe.  From  their  earliest 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG  OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 


69 


childhood  they  were  brought  up  to  understand  that  theft,  or  other  crime, 
committed  against  a  person  outside  of  their  own  tribe  was  legitimate;  conse- 
quently such  a  thing  as  conscience  in  an  Indian  was  entirely  unknown. 

In  some  of  the  nations  or  tribes  the  chief  was  a  despot  in  relation  to  the 
return  of  stolen  property.  He  had  authority  to  cause  the  return  of  such 
articles,  and  redress  the  wrong  in  any  way  he  might  see  fit,  except  bv  tak- 
ing life.  When  this  was  deemed  necessary  some  member  of  the  injured 
family  was  depended  upon  to  take  the  life  of  the  offender.  Some  of  the 
penalties  imposed  upon  mem- 
bers of  the  tribe  were  severe; 
this  had  much  to  do  in  keep- 
ing them  honest.  The  power 
of  the  chiefs  as  civilization 
pushed  westward  was  greatly 
diminished,  until  it  was  re- 
duced almost  to  abstract  in- 
fluence over  the  tribe.  The 
large  nations  were  divided 
into  many  small  tribes,  each 
under  its  own  chief;  the  latter 
used  every  effort  to  keep  his 
tribe  together  and  prevent  its 
members  from  leaving  and 
joining  another  tribe,  or  form- 
ing a  new  one.  There  was 
no  penalty  for  this,  but  it  was 
considered  a  disgrace  to  a 
chief  for  members  of  his 
tribe  to  desert  him.  Each 
chief  looked  after  the  unpro- 
tected members  of  his  tribe, 
such  as  the  women  and 
children  of  dead  warriors, 
and  saw  that  they  were  cared 
for.  This  was  one  of  the  redeeming  features  of  the  red  man. 

Nearly  all  had  their  "medicine  chief,"  "medicine  man,"  and  their  pecu- 
liar manner  of  "making  medicine."  This  was  not,  as  one  would  naturally 
suppose,  the  medical  treatment  of  the  sick  and  afflicted  with  herbs  or  drugs, 
but  was  a  deep-rooted  superstition  peculiar  to  themselves.  The  medicine 
chief  of  some  of  the  nations  and  tribes  was  a  man  who  by  bold-faced  con- 


THE    CHALLENGE — THE    TAIL    OF    THE    SCALP  LOCK 

THROWN  OVER  THE  HEAD,  INDICATING 

"  TAKE  IT.'' 


ijO  TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 

juring  had  induced  his  people  to  believe  that  he  was  possessed  of  super- 
natural powers,  or  some  mysterious  art.  To  maintain  himself  in  this  posi- 
tion he  habitually  went  through  all  sorts  of  wild  gesticulations,  bodily 
contortions,  and  mysterious  movements,  both  day  and  night,  in  order  to  con- 
vince those  who  noticed  him  of  his  superior  ability  and  supernatural  gifts. 
He  made  speeches  and  described  in  much  detail  his  ability  to  perform  cer- 
tain wonderful  things.  Occasionally,  in  endeavoring  to  convince  those 
about  him  of  his  occult  powers,  he  sacrificed  his  life  in  attempting  rash  deeds 
in  battle,  or  in  vain  efforts  to  perform  miracles.  This  excited  other  Indians, 
both  male  and  female,  to  do  many  foolish  things.  The  medicine  man  was 
not  looked  upon  as  a  jhief  in  any  sense  of  the  word,  but  was  regarded  as  one 
possessing  the  power  to  perform  wonderful  feats  and  cures.  The  members  of 
his  tribe,  both  male  and  female,  constantly  applied  to  him  for  assistance  to 
prevent  disease,  cure  the  sick,  bring  good  luck  in  battle,  in  the  chase,  and 
particularly  in  all  family  affairs.  The  truth  is,  the  medicine  man  was  a 
base  impostor,  an  unmitigated  fraud. 

The  individual  making  of  medicine  was  practiced  by  nearly  all  of  the 
wild  Indians,  and  was  a  purely  superstitious  rite.  Each  had  his  or  her  own 
medicine.  An  Indian  would  silently  leave  camp,  sit  alone  in  the  sun  on  a 
hilltop  or  in  a  ravine  for  hours,  hoping  thereby  to  induce  the  power  of  "med- 
icine "  to  come  and  adhere  to  him.  So  with  the  women.  Medicine-making 
consisted  of  peculiar  forms  among  different  Indians.  With  most  of  them  it 
meant  to  do  certain  things  only  in  a  particular  way.  With  others  the  med- 
icine consisted  mainly  in  some  peculiar  manner  of  handling  the  pipe;  or  the 
manner  of  turning  the  face  to  the  sun  or  the  moon,  when  they  first  saw  it. 
Others,  after  a  long  journey,  would  strike  the  water  of  a  stream  or  pond 
with  their  hands,  or  with  a  bow,  tomahawk,  or  other  weapon,  uttering  a 
prayer  to  the  Great  Spirit  at  the  same  time. 

They  had  their  medicine  horses ;  these  were  painted  fantastically  when  they 
could  obtain  paints  to  do  so.  The  tail,  mane,  and  foretop  were  cut,  and 
oddly  decorated  with  feathers.  Such  a  horse  was  supposed  to  be  proof 
against  all  enemies,  and  was  ridden  or  used  on  important  occasions.  They 
also  had  medicine  dogs,  which  were  supposed  to  possess  extraordinary 
powers.  These  dogs  were  brought  into  requisition  when  they  started  on  the 
chase,  or  were  about  to  perform  some  particular  feat.  When  they  were  used 
against  the  influence  of  spirits  to  cure,  or  prevent  disease,  they  were  brought 
inside  the  lodge  and  kept  there  for  the  purpose  of  warding  off  trouble.  They 
were  not  killed  and  eaten  so  long  as  their  medicine  was  effective,  but  woe  to 
them  when  the  Indian  supposed  their  supernatural  powers  had  departed  or 
failed  to  attract  their  credulity. 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS.  71 

The  medicine-making  of  the  Sioux  was  interesting.  They  would  sit  for 
hours  in  a  certain  position,  with  their  faces  directly  to  the  sun,  inviting  the 
medicine  to  come  to  them.  A  woman  made  medicine  by  standing  in  the 
water  and  hacking  her  arm  or  leg  with  a  knife,  on  the  principle  that  the 
greater  the  scar  the  more  powerful  the  medicine. 

There  were  numerous  other  ways  of  making  medicine.  One  of  these  was, 
when  they  first  approached  a  body  of  water  to  strike  it  with  the  hand  or  foot, 
and  if  tney  had  a  vessel  with  them,  to  dip  up  and  pour  some  water  on  the 
ground  where  grass  was  growing,  before  drinking,  no  matter  how  thirsty 
they  might  be.  Another  was  to  stand  naked  in  the  rain  when  it  began  to 
fall,  until  their  hair  was  thoroughly  wet.  This  was  considered  particularly 
good  medicine;  but  should  the  rain  be  of  short  duration,  they  considered 
their  medicine  had  been  "  broken."  When  an  Indian  had  ill  luck  he  would 
insist  that  his  medicine  had  been  broken.  He  would  at  once  seek  to  discover 
the  cause  and  invariably  found  a  satisfactory  explanation.  Should  he  lay 
it  to  one  of  his  wives  she  was"  sure  to  pay  the  penalty  in  some  way.  He 
might  ignore  her  entirely  until  his  luck  changed  for  the  better. 

Different  nations  and  tribes  had  different  symbols  and  medicines.  The 
Cheyennes  had  a  medicine  arrow,  and  the  Arapahoes  used  the  root  of  a  tree  or 
bush,  which  represented  in  form  an  image  of  man  or  beast.  This  they 
hung  up  when  alone  and  made  their  medicine  to  it.  They  sometimes  held 
medicine  dances,  although  they  were  tame  affairs.  The  medicine  of 
the  Utes  was  a  stone  figure,  or  the  skeleton  of  a  bird.  The  loss  of  this 
emblem  was  considered  an  evil  omen. 

The  only  medicine  that  was  anything  like  universal  among  the  wild 
Indians  was  the  manner  of  treating  the  females  of  the  lodge,  in  relation  to 
their  exclusion  once  every  month.  All  the  females  of  the  family,  be  they 
wives,  daughters,  relatives,  or  visitors,  when  the  monthly  period  arrived, 
be  it  day  or  night,  no  matter  how  inclement  the  weather,  immediately  left 
the  great  lodge  and  took  up  their  abode  in  a  small  lodge,  which  was  erected 
by  the  side  of  the  larger  one.  Should  there  be  no  small  lodge  they  must 
shift  for  themselves  as  best  they  could.  The  small  lodge  was  their  home 
until  the  period  passed ;  there  they  were  compelled  to  eat,  sleep,  and  abide 
until  recovered,  when  they  might  again  enter  the  family  lodge.  But  during 
this  entire  period  they  were  not  permitted  to  enter  the  great  lodge.  To  do 
so  was  sure  to  "break  the  medicine"  of  the  entire  family,  of  which  offense 
no  Indian  woman  would  be  guilty. 

Sickness  was  supposed  to  be  the  work  of  the  bad  spirit ;  it  was  to  nullify 
the  power  of  this  spirit  that  the  services  of  the  medicine  man  were  called  into 
requisition.  He  might,  or  might  not,  believe  in  the  efficacy  of  hie  medicine, 


72  TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG  OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 

but  he  was  shrewd  enough  to  exploit  his  special  powers,  and  among  the 
savages  his  pretensions  naturally  found  easy  credence.  He  occupied  an 
influential  position  among  his  tribe,  and  frequently  used  this  power  with  evil 
effects.  He  opposed  any  change  that  might  tend  to  enlighten  his  people 
and  diminish  his  own  standing;  hence  his  power  was  usually  exercised  in 
keeping  the  Indian  in  his  primitve  ignorance  and  barbarism. 

It  was  difficult  to  eradicate  from  the  Indian  mind  his  belief  in  the  efficacy 
of  the  medicine  man.  Even  those  who  claimed  to  be  civilized  frequently 
reverted  to  the  incantations  and  rites  of  these  conjurors,  in  whom  they  placed 
implicit  confidence  as  to  their  powers.  Indians  who  had  been  taken  away 
from  their  heathenish  surroundings,  brought  under  the  influence  of  civiliza- 
tion and  educational  privileges,  and  who  had  given  up  their  belief  in  the 
medicine  man  and  his  superstitions  rites,  no  sooner  returned  to  their  tribe 
than  they  resumed  their  savage  mode  of  life,  and  relapsed  into  their  native 
barbarism.  Such  persons  might  speak  English ;  conform  outwardly  to  the 
requirements  of  the  Christian  religion;  dress  and  act  like  the  white  man, 
and  invest  themselves  with  all  the  externals  of  civilization,  but  instinctively 
they  remained  at  heart  the  innate  savage. 

The  manner  of  treating  prisoners  differed  among  the  various  nations. 
Among  some,  women  captives  were  invariably  outraged  by  all  the  men  of 
the  party.  Among  others,  a  woman  captive  was  subject  to  the  caprice  of 
all  the  party,  until  they  returned  to  their  own  camps,  when  she  became  the 
slave  of  her  captor.  With  others,  the  captor  claimed  the  woman  and  kept 
her  for  the  revenues  derived  from  immorality.  Among  those  who  practiced 
this  custom  it  was  not  considered  degrading. 

White  women  captives  were  highly  prized  by  all  Indians  for  the  pur- 
pose of  ransom.  To  hold  white  captives  as  hostages  was  a  strong  argument 
for  peace.  Cases  have  been  known  where  they  forced  a  white  woman  to 
write  a  letter  on  a  tanned  skin,  a  piece  of  bark,  or  other  smooth  substance, 
which  was  sent  to  the  commanding  officer  of  the  nearest  troops,  as  an  appeal 
for  peace,  in  order  that  her  own  life  might  be  spared.  But  the  Indians 
neve"r  allowed  a  captive  white  woman  to  fall  into  the  hands  of  white  soldiers 
until  a  treaty  had  been  made,  well  knowing  that  should  she  inform  the 
soldiers  of  the  manner  in  which  she  had  been  treated,  the  troops  would  make 
no  agreement  with  them. 

I  knew  of  a  case  where  three  women  had  been  captured  from  a  wagon 
train  on  Green  River,  and  retained  by  the  Indians  without  being  violated. 
Knowing  that  they  were  closely  pursued,  the  Indians  voluntarily  surren- 
dered these  women  to  the  troops  at  South  Pass,  for  which  they  received 
rewards  in  the  way  of  supplies,  and  were  treated  as  good  Indians,  because 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG  OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS.  73 

they  had  not  outraged  the  captives.  This  was  the  most  injudicious  step 
that  the  authorities  could  have  taken,  as  it  was  a  premium  for  these  treach- 
erous wretches  to  capture  women  and  children  from  other  overland  wagon 
trains  for  the  purpose  of  getting  a  reward  for  their  return. 

When  having  women  captives,  t^d  closely  pursued  by  the  troops,  the 
Indians  placed  them  in  such  position,  that  in  case  the  soldiers  opened 
fire,  the  captives  must  be  seen  and  killed  by  them.  When  a  treaty  was 
made  under  these  circumstances,  it  was  always  to  the  Indians'  advantage. 
Some  of  the  captive  white  women  who  had  been  returned  to  the  troops  for 
ransom  told  revolting  stories  of  the  brutal  manner  in  which  they  had  been 
treated. 

In  dealing  with  the  Indians  under  these  conditions,  the  troops  were  more 
or  less  hampered  in  doing  their  duty.  They  knew  there  were  influential 
people  in  the  East  whose  intentions  were  good  enough,  but  who  were  mis- 
guided by  ignorance  of  Indian  character,  who  would  condemn  any  action 
the  troops  might  take  in  their  efforts  to  punish  these  miscreants,  no  matter 
how  outrageously  they  treated  innocent  children  and  defenseless  women 
captives. 

Warriors  captured  in  battles  between  themselves  were  guarded  with  much 
vigilance,  for  among  some  of  the  nations  they  were  valuable  as  slaves; 
others  compelled  them  to  inform  of  the  numbers  and  whereabouts  of  their 
tribe.  Information  of  this  nature  could  only  be  forced  from  the  unfortunate 
by  extreme  cruelty,  if  at  all. 

The  usual  method  of  wringing  such  from  the  prisoner  was  to  tie  the  hands 
together  in  front;  then  just  above  the  elbows  of  both  arms  two  strong  raw- 
hide thongs  were  securely  bound ;  to  these  a  stout  pole  about  six  feet  long 
was  fastened  near  the  center,  one  end  resting  on  the  back  of  the  head ;  then 
some  of  the  women  seized  the  lower  end,  forcing  the  head  of  the  person 
downward  on  the  breast,  where  it  was  firmly  held  until  existence  became 
so  unendurable  that  the  sufferer  either  confessed  or  died  in  great  agon y. 

During  any  and  all  cruelties  inflicted,  the  unfortunate  was  allowed  no 
sleep,  water,  or  food,  and  his  sufferings  were  increased  by  constant  shouts 
of  his  torturers. 


TWENTY   YEARS  AMONG  OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 

74 


CHAPTER  VI. 

THE  INDIANS'  STRANGE  IDEAS  OF  THE  HEAVENS— INDIAN  CAMPS— SIGNIFI- 
CANCE OF  SIGNS— WONDERFUL  SKILL  IN  TRAILING— THE  INDIAN  AS 
A  PLAINSMAN. 

The  Milky  Way — Composed  of  the  Shadows  of  Departed  Spirits. — The  Road  of  Departed 
Spirits— Their  Ideas  of  Thunder  and  Lightning — The  Aurora  Borealis—  Lighting 
the  Road  of  the  Spirits  to  the  Happy  Hunting  Ground — Reverence  for  the  Dead — 
Placing  the  Dead  in  Trees — Providing  Food  for  the  Spirits  to  eat — Final  Departure 
of  the  Spirits  from  the  Corpse — Indian  Camps — Surrounded  by  Filth — Broken  Bones 
—Care  of  Wounds— Indian  Fortitude — No  Regular  Time  for  Eating  or  Sleeping — 
How  they  set  their  Lodges  and  made  their  Camps — Drinking  Dirty  Water — Signs — 
Everything  a  Sign  to  an  Indian — The  most  important  Thing  to  all  Indians — Skill  in 
Trailing— Punishment  for  Crimes — Lack  of  Muscular  Strength — No  Match  for  the 
White  Man  in  Personal  Encounter. 

THE  wild  Indians  had  peculiar  ideas  regarding  the  heavens,  and  what  they 
believed  is  contained  therein.  Nearly  all  attempted  to  explain  the  Milky 
Way.  Some  said  that  it  was  composed  of  the  shadows  of  departed  spirits, 
others  that  it  was  the  road  traveled  by  these  spirits  on  the  way  to  their 
future  abode,  and  others  that  it  was  the  true  happy  hunting  ground,  where 
all  Indians  would  arrive  after  death,  there  to  spend  an  eternity  of  bliss. 
They  did  not  arrive  at  this  conclusion  through  a  process  of  reasoning,  but 
accepted  it  as  an  indisputable  fact.  None  of  them  had  any  theory  con- 
cerning the  constant  change  in  the  appearance  of  the  heavens  caused  by  the 
movement  of  the  planets;  they  could  not  explain  the  rising  and  setting  of 
the  sun ;  the  only  thing  they  knew  about  the  heavens  was  that  the  moon 
changed  at  regular  intervals.  They  also  had  strange  ideas  about  thunder 
and  lightning.  The  Sioux  believed  that  it  was  the  direct  manifestation  of 
the  Great  Spirit's  anger.  After  the  thunder  was  over  they  believed  that 
the  anger  of  the  Great  Spirit  had  been  appeased,  and  that  no  harm  would 
come  from  him  for  some  time. 

Many  Indians  believed  that  the  Aurora  Borealis,  or  Northern  Lights, 
was  produced  by  departed  spirits  in  the  happy  hunting  ground,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  lighting  the  way  for  spirits  which  were  then  hovering  around  the 
dead,  and  those  which  were  still  groping  in  the  dark  in  their  effort  to  find 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 


75 


COMANCHE  WARRIOR — GAP  IN   THE    SALT. 


the  road  to  the  Spirit  Land.  After  this  light  had  been  shining  for  some 
time,  they  believed  that  all  the  spirits  which  had  lost  their  way  would  arrive 
safe  in  the  Spirit  Land. 

All  the  savage  Indians  had  great  respect  and  reverence  for  the  dead.     No 
matter  how  bitter  the  feeling  between  two  nations  or  tribes,  when  they  came 
upon  the  burial  places  of  the 
dead,  whether  of  their  own 
people  or   of  their  enemies, 
they    would   conduct    them- 
selves with  much  solemnity. 

They  would  not  disturb  the 
resting  place  of  the  dead,  or 
remove  anything  that  had 
been  placed  at  or  near  it  by 
the  relatives  or  friends  of  the 
departed,  no  matter  how 
much  they  might  have  been 
in  need  of  it  or  how  recently 
it  had  been  left  there. 

The  Sioux  and  some  others, 
who  placed  their  dead  in 

trees  or  on  scaffolds,  would,  after  the  poles  had  rotted  away  and  the  bones 
had  fallen  to  the  ground,  gather  up  the  bones,  place  them  in  a  pile,  and 
cover  them  with  stones,  to  prevent  wild  animals  from  dragging  them  away. 
Even  these  piles  of  stones  were  respected  by  every  red  man. 

Some  of  the  Indians  who  placed  their  dead  on  scaffolds  would  leave  a 
hole  in  the  skins  in  which  the  corpse  was  wrapped  for  the  purpose  of  allow- 
ing the  spirit  to  look  at  the  corpse  during  the  time  that  it  was  hovering 
about;  should  food  left  for  the  spirit  be  eaten  by  carnivorous  animals,  noth- 
ing could  make  them  believe  that  it  was  not  consumed  by  the  departed 
spirit.  They  believed  that  the  spirit  hovered  around  the  body  of  the  dead 
and  returned  at  irregular  intervals  to  witness  the  rites  paid  to  the  body 
before  the  spirit  took  its  final  leave. 

There  was  no  regularity  in  setting  the  lodges  of  an  Indian  camp.  No 
one,  not  even  the  chief,  had  supervision  over  the  manner  or  place  where  the 
lodges  were  to  be  set.  They  were  erected  in  such  places  as  best  suited  each 
individual  owner.  There  were  no  streets  or  walks,  neither  did  the  owner  of 
a  lodge  claim  the  space  around  it  which  he  kept  clean,  and  no  sanitary  pre- 
cautions whatever  were  taken.  Dirt,  bones,  and  filth  of  every  description 
were  strewn  everywhere,  and  the  stench  was  frequently  unendurable  to  any 


76 

one  but  an  Indian.  The  camps  were  located  near  a  stream,  and  were  gen- 
erally set  in  such  position  that  when  a  rain  storm  came,  all  the  filth  that 
had  accumulated  was  drained  into  the  watercourse.  In  tanning  bides  the 
women  fastened  them  in  the  stream  to  soak  for  days,  and  the  watercourse 
along  the  entire  length  of  the  camp  would  be  filled  with  these  filthy 
skins,  polluting  the  water  with  the  hair  and  dirt  that  soaked  off  from 
them.  This  polluted  water  was  used  for  cooking  and  drinking  purposes 
indiscriminately,  yet  it  seemed  to  have  no  evil  effect  on  those  using  it. 

Being  too  lazy  to  go  to  a  point  above  where  the  hides  had  been  placed,  for 
the  purpose  of  securing  good  fresh  water,  and  having  no  medical  skill  in 
treating  ordinary  diseases,  it  is  surprising  that  the  mortality  was  not  greater 
among  them.  None  of  them  knew  anything  about  treating  a  broken  bone. 
A  bone  once  broken  was  liable  to  leave  the  owner  a  cripple  for  life.  Neither 
had  they  any  skill  in  dressing  or  healing  a  wound.  A  wound  once  inflicted 
was  left  to  heal  itself;  yet  it  was  rare  for  an  Indian  to  die  of  a  wound 
that  did  not  strike  a  vital  part.  I  have  seen  Indians  with  wounds  that  were 
sufficient  to  kill  a  white  man,  bear  them  with  the  greatest  fortitude  and  re- 
cover from  their  effects. 

They  had  no  regular  meal  time.  They  ate  when  they  had  food  and  were 
hungry,  that  was  all.  This  would  seem  to  disprove  the  theory  advanced  by 
physicians  that  regularity  in  eating  is  essential  to  good  health,  as  the  In- 
dians were  a  remarkably  healthy  race,  and  rarely,  if  ever,  suffered  from 
indigestion.  Neither  had  they  any  regular  time  for  sleeping.  They  slept 
when  they  felt  like  it,  and  arose  in  the  same  way. 

One  thing  that  all  Indians  were  expert  in  was  the  reading  of  signs,  and 
they  were  constantly  on  the  alert  to  discover  them.  From  their  earliest 
childhood  they  were  taught  to  look  at  all  times  for  signs  that  betrayed  the 
presence,  recent  or  remote,  of  human  beings  and  all  animal  life.  No  mat- 
ter where  they  were  they  were  constantly  looking  at  the  ground  for  foot- 
prints of  human  beings,  animals,  and  birds,  instinctively  and  persistently 
examining  the  grass,  weeds,  bushes,  trees,  and  even  the  water,  in  their 
efforts  to  discover  signs  left  by  any  living  thing.  These  tell-tale  signs  were 
the  Indian's  trusted  guide.  To  him  the  trail  or  footprint  of  man,  beast,  or 
bird,  could  be  as  plainly  read  as  if  printed  in  an  open  book.  He  knew, 
moreover,  that  by  his  own  trail  his  enemies  could  fathom  his  intentions,  and 
learn  about  his  movements,  hence  he  employed  every  art  and  devise  to  con- 
ceal his  trail  and  mislead  his  enemies. 

When  a  war  or  other  party  was  on  the  move  it  had  no  advance  or  flank 
guard,  but  invariably  had  a  rear  guard,  or  body  of  watchers,  which  con- 
sisted of  a  small  number  of  braves  well-mounted,  who  kept  to  the  rear  of  the 


TWENTY    YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS.  77 

moving  party,  at  a  distance  of  from  a  mile  to  two  miles,  scouting  through 
the  hills  in  every  direction  to  discover  if  they  were  being  followed.  The 
rear  guard  of  the  moving  body  was  rarely  seen,  but  they  were  in  a  position  at 
all  times  to  know  whether  they  were  pursued ;  if  so,  they  would  instantly 
notify  the  main  body,  which  would  at  once  scatter  and  break  the  trail  in  every 
direction. 

As  hunters  they  could  not  compare  with  a  mountaineer  or  frontiersman ; 
but  when  on  the  hunt  they  were  wonderfully  patient  and  would  work  for 
hours  to  approach  near  enough  to  an  animal  in  order  to  have  a  dead  shot 
before  firing.  They  gained  this  habit  in  their  early  days,  when  they  had 
only  the  bow  and  arrow  with  which  to  procure  food.  After  they  secured 
modern  firearms  they  continued  to  approach  close  to  an  animal  before  firing 
in  order  not  to  waste  their  ammunition,  which  was  not  easily  obtained  by 
them. 

Trial  by  judge,  jury,  or  council  of  the  tribe  was  unknown.  All  such 
representations  in  works  of  fiction  and  tales  of  frontier  life  are  purely 
imaginary.  Neither  was  there  a  formal  punishment  for  crime,  or  offenses 
committed  by  members  of  the  nation  or  tribe.  The  only  approach  to  such  a 
rule  was  the  penalty  inflicted  on  women  for  marital  infidelity,  and  this  was 
general  among  nearly  all  the  Indians  of  the  West.  -***^ 

The  only  punishment  inflicted  upon  the  male  members  of  the  various 
tribes  was  administered  by  the  injured  party,  or  by  his  friends  or  relatives, 
if  he  had  been  killed.  This  partook  rather  of  the  nature  of  retaliation  or 
vengeance  than  of  justice  or  punishment,  in  our  sense  of  these  terms. 

Neither  did  the  Indians  keep  any  record  of  the  history  or  interesting 
events  pertaining  to  their  nation  or  tribe,  indeed,  such  a  thing  would  have 
been  impossible.  In  the  first  place  they  had  no  written  language. 
Secondly,  if  they  possessed  such  records,  it  would  have  been  impossible  for 
them  to  preserve  them.  They  were  continually  on  the  move;  they  kept  and 
carried  with  them  only  such  articles  as  were  indispensable  to  their  wants 
and  necessities.  All  attempts  at  picture  writing,  or  efforts  to  perpetuate 
events  by  symbols  were  made  only  by  individuals;  these  were  the  property 
of  the  author.  As  such  pictures  were  generally  executed  on  tanned  hides,  they 
might  be  disposed  of  by  the  owner  at  the  first  opportunity  to  exchange  for 
some  article  he  desired.  Personally,  he  attached  no  great  importance  or 
value  to  them.  Again,  Indian  habitations  were  frequently  flooded  during 
heavy  rains,  and  such  rude  records  would  on  these  occasions  be  irreparably 
ruined.  Add  to  these  reasons  the  facts  that  the  Indians  had  no  accurate 
conception  of  time;  cared  nothing  whatever  about  dates;  that  births,  mar- 
riages, and  deaths  were  regarded  as  common  occurrences  of  which  not  even 


78  TWENTY   YEARS  AMONG  OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 

a  mental  record  was  made;  finally,  that  the  Indian  lived  only  in  the  present, 
for  the  most  part  heedless  of  the  future,  wholly  heedless  of  the  past,  and  it 
will  readily  be  seen  that  to  expect  him  to  keep  chronicles  of  his  nation  or 
tribe  would  be  to  expect  the  impossible. 

The  only  past  events  that  were  worthy  of  an  Indian's  attention  were  his 
own  deeds  of  prowess;  these  he  could  describe  from  memory,  or  if  that 
failed,  he  did  not  hesitate  to  draw  on  his  imagination,  which  could  always 
be  depended  upon  to  make  a  glowing  picture.  As  they  held  no  traffic  with 
other  Indian  nations — all  trading  they  did  among  themselves  was  only  an 
exchange  of  articles  on  the  spot — they  had  no  occasion  to  keep  accounts,  or 
records  of  any  kind.  They  did  not  even  tax  their  memories  to  retain  an 
account  of  a  mercantile  transaction  that  occurred  among  themselves.  Once 
an  incident  of  this  character  was  finished,  the  Indian  dismissed  it  from  his 
mind.  While  his  faculties  were  preternatural ly  keen  in  all  things  pertain- 
ing to  his  everyday  necessities,  they  were  stunted  and  undeveloped  in  many 
things  that  were  not  essential  to  his  existence. 

The  same  may  be  said  of  his  physical  development.  It  will  be  noticed,  by 
reference  to  the  photographs  in  this  book,  that  the  Indians  are  lack- 
ing in  muscular  development.  They  possessed  great  endurance,  but 
were  destitute  of  bodily  strength.  This  was  largely  owing  to  the 
fact  that  they  lived  almost  exclusively  on  meat,  a  diet  that  does 
not  seem  to  create  flesh  or  increase  muscular  strength  as  do  many  kinds  of 
cereal  and  vegetable  foods.  Furthermore,  as  the  Indian  never  deigned  to 
work,-  the  upper  portions  of  his  body  were  not  developed  by  exercise,  and 
his  outdoor  life  tended  to  make  him  lithe  and  active  rather  than  stout  or 
strong.  Hence,  in  personal  encounter,  witbout  weapons,  the  Indian  was  no 
match  for  the  white  man.  Such  a  thing  as  a  fistic  combat  was  unknown  to 
Indian  life  and  custom;  whenever  they  fought,  whether  among  themselves, 
or  with  their  enemies,  they  fought  with  weapons,  and  to  the  death. 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS.  79 


CHAPTER  VII. 

HOW  INDIANS  COOKED  AND  ATE— THEIR  LOVE  OF  FINERY  AND  PERSONAL 
ADORNMENT— PAINTING  THEIR  FACES  AND  B  ODIES— MAKING  A  WILL 
— PLAINSCRAFT. 

Cooking  Pots  made  of  Fresh  Hides — Eating  Raw  Meat  from  newly-slain  Animals — 
A  Meal  twenty-four  hours  long — A  Daily  Gorge — Insatiable  Appetites — First-class 
Gluttons — Eating  Skins  and  Moccasins — Their  first  Coffee — Indian  Improvidence — 
A  Chief's  Powers  and  Limitations — The  Chief  in  Camp  and  on  the  War-path — 
Forming  a  new  Tribe — The  Survival  of  the  Fittest — Love  of  Ornament — Fondness 
for  Soldiers'  cast-off  Uniforms  and  High  Hats — Aversion  to  wearing  Trousers — Fash, 
ion  of  Painting  the  Face  and  Body — Indian  Dandies — Indian  Artists — How  an  Indian 
made  his  Will — Distribution  of  Property  before  Death — Reading  the  Signs  of  an 
Abandoned  Camp — Plainscraft. 

WHEN  the  Indian  first  came  into  intercourse  with  the  white  man,  his 
most  eager  desire  was  to  secure  knives,  hatchets,  and  kettles.  He  usually 
cooked  his  food  by  broiling  it,  or  by  semi-boiling  it  in  a  pot  made  of  fresh 
hides,  or  in  hollowed  wooden  receptacles  which  answered  the  purpose  of  ket- 
tles. In  these  water  was  poured,  and  heated  by  hot  stones  which  were 
constantly  thrown  in.  When  on  the  chase,  and  hungry,  he  often  ate  his 
meat  raw  and  bloody  just  as  it  was  cut  from  the  newly-slain  animal. 

As  to  taste,  it  did  not  figure  at  all  in  the  Indian's  manner  of  preparing 
his  food.  His  only  thought  was  to  appease  his  hunger,  not  to  gratify  his 
palate.  Everything  was  cooked  in  miscellaneous  fashion,  a  pot-pourri,  or 
mess,  of  which  everybody  partook  while  it  lasted.  Though  the  Indians  ate 
only  once  a  day,  it  must  not  be  supposed  that  they  had  only  one  msal  during 
every  twenty-four  hours.  The  meal,  if  there  was  enough  of  it,  and  the 
diners  were  hungry,  lasted  the  whole  twenty-four  hours  through.  They  sat 
around  the  kettle,  or  the  roasted  animal,  and  ate  until  satisfied,  eating  again 
when  sufficient  appetite  returned.  The  Indian  meal  was  simply  a  daily 
gorge — the  white  man's  three  meals  in  one.  If  another  member  of  the 
tribe  chanced  to  enter  the  lodge  while  food  remained  he  was  at  liberty  to 
help  himself. 

When  food  was  scarce — for  the  Indian  was  the  impersonation  of  improvi- 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 


dence — they  would  endure  hunger  uncomplainingly.  When  in  desperate 
straits,  they  would  eat  skins,  their  moccasins;  roots,  buds,  and  the  bark  of 
trees  were  not  despised.  In  times  of  want,  as  long  as  their  ponies  and  dogs 
lasted,  they  did  not  fast  long  at  a  time.  They  didn't  use  salt  with  their 

food  or  as  a  condiment ;  they  did 
not  have  it  and  were  not  accus- 
tomed to  its  use. 

Jn  eating  jerked  meat,  they 
rarely  cooked  it  at  all.  It  was 
left  until  thoroughly  cured, 
when  the  entire  family  could 
munch  it  all  day.  None  of  the 
fruits  or  berries  that  grew  wild 
in  their  country  were  cooked, 
but  were  eaten  just  as  they  were 
gathered,  or  in  dried  form. 
They  sometimes  put  the 
Pomme  blanche — a  species  of 
wild  carrot — in  their  pots  to 
boil  with  meat,  but  as  they  kept 
the  pots  boiling  for  a  long 
time,  the  contents  were  event- 
ually reduced  to  pulp,  and  the 
mess  became  a  thick  mass  of 
nameless  soup.  Their  manner 
of  cooking  fish  was  to  boil 
them,  sometimes  putting  in  the 
Pomme  blanche,  which,  when 
boiled  with  the  fish,  made  a 
disgusting  dish. 

They  also  cooked  fish  by  digging  holes  in  the  ground,  in  which  they 
made  a  fire,  and,  placing  the  uncleaned  fish  in  the  hot  ashes  and  coals,  left 
them  to  bake.  Fisn  cooked  in  this  way,  with  the  help  of  a  sharp  appetite, 
could  be  eaten,  although  I  must  say  that  I  did  not  relish  it.  They  also 
broiled  fish  over  hot  coals,  first  placing  a  stick  in  the  fish's  mouth,  and  hold- 
ing it  over  the  fire,  turning  it  until  done. 

The  first  coffee  they  had  was  taken  from  some  emigrants  crossing  the 
plains,  whom  they  killed.  They  boiled  the  green  coffee  for  a  long  time, 
and,  not  being  able  to  make  anything  palatable  out  of  it,  they  wondered 


WHITE   THUNDER   IN   MOURNING — IROQUOIS  SHELL 
EAR   PENDANTS. 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS.  81 

what  the  white  people  did  with  it.  This  they  afterward  learned,  and  be- 
came very  fond  of  coffee,  especially  when  well  sweetened. 

Their  manner  of  selecting  chiefs  varied  somewhat  with  different  nations; 
there  was  no  gradation,  as  a  rule,  between  the  chiefs  of  tribes  of  the 
same  nation.  In  some  of  the  nations  they  became  chiefs  by  heredity.  The 
honor  was  handed  down  from  father  to  son,  though  it  was  necessary  in  all 
cases  that  the  son  should  have  the  ability  and  courage  to  maintain  his  posi- 
tion after  he  had  once  secured  it.  Merit  and  personal  attractions  had  their 
weight.  In  other  nations  a  man  was  made  chief  by  common  consent,  usu- 
ally by  the  warriors  of  the  tribe.  There  were  many  jealousies  between 
chiefs  and  those  who  aspired  to  the  office.  Occasionally  these  jealousies  re- 
sulted in  the  death  of  the  chief  or  the  aspirant,  or  both. 

An  Indian  who  was  once  made  chief  of  his  tribe  would  almost  rather  lose 
his  life  than  the  position.  He  would  fight  for  it  to  the  death.  This  is  one 
reason  why  there  were  so  many  tribes  of  the  same  nation.  Those  who  de- 
sired to  follow  a  certain  man  or  chief  would  secede  from  the  original  triba 
and  form  themselves  into  a  new  one,  taking  some  name  by  which  they 
might  be  distinguished  from  their  old  tribe.  This  was  particularly  true  of 
the  Utes.  It  was  regarded  as  necessary  that  a  chief  should  be  able  to  make 
a  logical  speech  to  his  tribe.  It  was  not  so  essential  that  he  should  show 
great  bravery  in  battle. 

A  chief  did  not  exercise  supreme  control  over  his  entire  people,  nor  were 
his  counsels  always  taken.  In  the  majority  of  instances  he  was  simply  a 
leading  man,  to  whom  the  others  looked  for  advice  and  instruction.  When 
in  camp  he  was  little  more  than  any  other  Indian,  and  had  usually  about  as 
much  control  over  the  actions  of  individual  members  of  his  tribe  as  the 
mayor  of  a  city  would  have  over  one  of  its  citizens.  When  in  battle,  how- 
ever, there  must  be  one  in  command,  and  it  was  generally  a  noted  chief, 
whose  ability  in  this  direction  had  been  tested  on  many  previous  occasions. 
Even  then  he  did  not  have  anything  like  the  control  over  his  warriors  that 
an  army  officer  has  over  his  troops.  The  warriors  in  battle  usually  fought 
independently,  and  could  not  therefore  be  subject  to  the  command  of  any 
one,  though  the  chief  might  from  time  to  time  give  orders  which  were 
obeyed  with  promptness. 

The  chiefs  of  tribes  were  sometimes  deposed,  although  this  was  rare. 
This  was  accomplished  by  a  leader  who,  aspiring  to  be  a  chief,  would  create 
dissension  in  a  tribe,  and  take  as  many  followers  with  him  as  possible. 
Should  the  new  leader,  in  setting  up  for  himself  an  independent  tribe,  be 
able  to  reduce  the  adherents  of  the  old  chief  to  such  an  insignificant  number 
as  to  be  unable  to  defend  themselves  against  their  enemies,  they  either 


82  TWENTY    YEARS   AMONG  OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 

followed  the  new  leader  or  abandoned  the  old  chief  and  joined  another  tribe 
of  their  nation,  thus  leaving  the  deserted  chief  to  seek  some  tribe  to  which 
he  could  adhere  for  protection. 

Should  the  position  of  chief  become  vacant,  and  there  be  two  or  more 
aspirants  for  the  office,  a  struggle  followed.  The  bitterest  passions  of  the 
rivals  were  aroused  to  such  a  degree  that  they  became  engaged  in  personal 
deadly  conflict,  and  fought  to  the  death  with  tomahawks  or  knives.  To 
become  a  chief  it  was  sometimes  necessary  for  one  of  the  braves  to  be 
the  hero  of  two  or  three  bloody  personal  combats.  When  this  was  the 
case  he  asserted  himself  as  chief,  and  all  recognized  him  as  such.  Should 
any  one  demur  to  his  authority  the  person  so  objecting  was  bound  to 
enter  into  a  personal  combat  with  him.  In  all  such  cases  the  chieftain- 
ship was  determined  by  the  survival  of  the  fittest. 

The  office  of  chief  had  no  compensation  or  emolument  attached  to  it.  It 
was  honorary,  laborious,  and  its  duties  were  performed  without  thanks. 
There  was  no  insignia  of  rank,  except  the  head  dress  of  eagle  feathers  worn 
by  distinguished  chiefs  on  ceremonial  occasions  and  occasionallj"  in  battle; 
a  chief  did  not  dress  better  than  the  majority  of  the  members  of  his  tribe. 
Indians  all  wished  to  rule;  this  created  a  great  deal  of  jealousy  and  ill-feel- 
ing. A  chief  had  to  secure  his  living  in  the  same  manner  as  the  others, 
neither  did  he  possess  the  great  power  usually  attributed  to  him  in  fiction. 

The  photographs  we  see  to-day  of  Indians  generally  represent  them  as 
wearing  shirts,  hats,  coats,  woolen  leggings,  and  other  articles  of  civilized 
apparel.  During  my  time  among  them  no  wild  Indian  wore  shirts  or  any 
wearing  apparel  whatever  after  the  fashion  of  the  white  man.  His  drtss 
usually  consisted  of  a  pair  of  moccasins,  buckskin  leggings  reaching  up  to 
the  thigh,  a  breech-cloth  and  a  buffalo  robe.  Occasionally  one  would  have 
a  buckskin  shirt  or  jacket  elaborately  decorated  with  beads,  porcupine  quills, 
and  Iroquois  shells;  it  was  fringed  at  the  bottom  and  on  the  lower  part  of 
the  sleeves.  In  their  hair  they  wore  a  few  feathers,  usually  those  of  the 
eagle,  wild  turkey,  or  hawk.  At  a  later  period  the  men  wore  woolen  shirts, 
and  red  or  blue  flannel  for  their  breech -cloths  and  leggings. 

They  were  fond  of  personal  finery,  and  would  decorate  and  adorn  them- 
selves with  all  sorts  of  trinkets.  Brass  and  copper  wire  for  wristlets  and 
armlets  were  favorite  decorations  with  both  sexes.  The  brass  ornaments  of 
a  soldier's  hat  or  cap  were  much  prized  by  them.  Broken  cross  sabres, 
cross  guns,  old  epaulettes,  tassels,  letters  and  figures  of  regiments  were  placed 
in  their  head  gear  in  almost  every  conceivable  manner.  If  they  could  pro- 
cure a  soldier's  discarded  hat  or  cap  with  the  ornaments  on,  to  which  they 
would  add  feathers  and  trinkets,  they  considered  that  they  were  dressed  in  the 


PAINTING    ON   BODIES— PECULIAR  MANNER   OF   CUTTING   THE   HAIR -PIPE   TOMAHAWK. 


Twenty  Yea-s  Among  Our  Hostil  >  In'liruis. 


Page  83 


fc,4  TWENTY    YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE    INDIANS. 

height  of  fashion.  Any  and  all  decoration,  no  matter  how  ridiculous,  would 
be  proudly  worn  in  the  most  conspicuous  manner.  I  once  saw  some  Sioux 
Indians  on  the  South  Platte,  decked  out  in  the  most  fantastic  style.  Some  of 
them  had  old  discarded  white  and  black  plug  hats,  decorated  with  the 
soldiers'  ornaments  I  have  mentioned.  In  many  cases  the  hats  were  much  too 
large  for  the  wearers,  resting  on  the  top  of  the  ears;  others  were  much  too 
small,  sitting  only  on  the  top  of  the  head.  Another  wore  an  old  vest,  many 
sizes  too  large,  but  buttoned  up  to  the  last  button.  Several  had  large,  flam- 


BUCKSKIN   SHIRT   WITH   INDIAN   DRAWING-. 

ing  red  ties  around  their  necks,  with  no  shirt,  collar,  or  other  article  of 
civilization  on  them.  As  they  moved  about  in  the  most  dignified  manner  in 
this  peculiar  uniform,  several  of  the  men  who  wore  tall  hats  suddenly 
dropped  the  buffalo  robes  from  their  bodies,  leaving  as  the  only  wearing 
apparel  in  view,  the  tall  hats  and  breech-cloth,  presenting  a  laughable  spec- 
tacle. 

No  Indian  would  wear  trousers.     He  drew  the  line  at  this  article  of  ap- 
parel.    If  he  secured  a  pair  he  would  immediately  cut  the  legs  off  halfway 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR    HOSTILE   INDIANS.  85 

between  the  knee  and  the  hip,  rip  open  the  outer  seam  and  have  his  wife 
sew  them  skin  tight  down  the  leg,  leaving  the  surplus  cloth  on  the  outside 
of  the  seam.  Some  of  them  decorated  the  surplus  strips  of  cloth  with  beads, 
deer  and  antelope  hoofs,  and  frequently  with  scalps  cut  up  for  the  purpose, 
so  that,  when  walking  or  riding  rapidly,  they  presented  a  striking  appear- 
ance. 

The  women's  dress  consisted  of  a  pair  of  moccasins,  leggings  reaching  to 
the  thigh,  a  low-necked,  short-sleeved,  buckskin  skirt  extending  below  the 
knee,  the  lower  edge  ornamented  with  fringed  buckskin,  a  buffalo  robe  or 
blanket,  and  around  the  waist  a  belt  made  of  hide  and  decorated  with  brass 
buttoi  s  beads  or  porcupine  quills  when  they  could  procure  them.  Though 
from  long  usage  such  articles  of  dress  were  dirty  and  greasy  beyond  descrip- 
tion, nevertheless,  they  were  highly  prized,  for  they  were  the  only  ones  the 
Indian  woman  had. 

Every  Indian,  big,  little,  old  or  young,  wore  a  belt.  To  the  male's  belt 
was  attached  a  sheath  knife,  tobacco  pouch,  and  other  paraphernalia ;  to  the 
woman's  a  sheath  knife,  small  pouches  containing  bone  awls  and  needles, 
and  other  feminine  notions. 

Painting  their  faces  and  bodies  was  also  a  favorite  way  of  decorating 
themselves.  When  they  could  procure  the  colors  they  painted  their  faces  in 
stripes  and  spots,  in  any  style  to  please  individual  fancy.  A  common  style 
was  to  paint  stripes  from  an  eighth  to  a  quarter  of  an  inch  in  width,  start- 
ing at  the  nose,  then  running  horizontally  across  to  the  ear,  using  red,  yel- 
low, blue,  green,  and  as  many  other  tints  as  they  could  procure.  The  fore- 
head was  striped  in  the  same  manner,  with  the  lines  running  up  and  down. 
Sometimes  the  face  was  painted  in  spots,  the  pigments  being  daubed  on 
without  reference  to  any  particular  design,  the  sole  intent  seeming  to  be  to 
make  themselves  as  hideously  ugly  as  possible.  Their  bodies  were  painted 
in  much  the  same  manner  and  colors,  except  that  the  lines  were  larger  and 
sometimes  wavy.  The  paints  being  originally  mixed  with  grease  would  re- 
main on  the  body  for  a  long  time,  for  the  wild  Indian  never  under  any  cir- 
cumstances washed  himself. 

I  have  heard  of  Indian  dandies,  but  have  never  seen  one.  When  a  young 
man  arrived  at  the  age  when  he  would  naturally  be  a  dandy  his  thoughts 
were  taken  up  with  securing  a  livelihood,  or  sufficient  of  this  world's  goods 
by  plunder,  or  the  hunt,  to  enable  him  to  start  in  life  and  obtain  for  himself 
a  lodge  and  family.  That  there  were  different  characters  among  these  peo- 
ple as  to  dress  and  ornament,  must  be  admitted,  but  these  were  merely  mat- 
ters of  personal  characteristics,  one  being  more  cleanly  than  another  and 
arranging  his  scanty  wardrobe  with  more  taste  and  effect. 


86  TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 

At  that  time  the  IndiaD  had  no  use  for  money.  If  he  procured  any  it  was 
usually  in  silver.  He  would  pound  the  silver  pieces  into  disks  to  ornament 
his  scalp  lock,  as  I  have  elsewhere  described.  Other  favorite  articles  of 
ornamentation  were  brass  buttons,  particularly  the  old-fashioned  smooth 


INDIAN   DRAWING   ON   TANNED   DEER   SKIN. 


kind,  about  as  large  as  a  twenty-five-cent  piece.  These  they  would  put  on 
their  belts  and  fasten  in  various  fantastic  ways — sometimes  artistically,  but 
more  frequently  the  reverse. 

Some  of  the  drawings  on  their  buft'allo  robes,  lodges,  and  skins,  were,  for 
Indians,  well  done,  the  artists  being  both  men  and  women.     Many  of  the 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 


87 


drawings  were  pictorial  efforts  to  tell  the  story  of  some  event  in  family  life, 
in  battle,  or  on  the  chase.  Some  of  them  were  so  obscene  as  to  be  unfit  for 
reproduction. 

When  an  Indian  who  had  several  wives  and  a  number  of  children  was 
very  ill,  and  thought  he  was  about  to  die,  he  called  around  him  as  many 
members  of  his  family  as 
could  be  gotten  together, 
then  he  proceeded  to  make 
his  will  orally,  by  distribut- 
ing such  of  his  worldly  be- 
longings as  were  not  to 
accompany  him  on  his  jour- 
ney to  the  Spirit  laud.  He 
presented  to  each  member  of 
the  family  various  articles, 
saying,  "I  give  you  this," 
until  he  had  divided  his 
entire  possessions  among 
them.  It  was  the  custom  to 
make  as  nearly  as  possible 
an  equitable  distribution  of 
his  property  among  his 
family. 

Oral  wills  were  always 
respected  and  no  effort  was 
ever  made  to  break  or  contest 
them.  Should  his  effects  be 
limited  and  the  number  of 

family  be  large,  they  would  continue  to  live  together  as  before,  using  the 
possessions  of  each  for  the  benefit  of  the  entire  household.  Should  one  of  his 
wives,  however,  become  the  wife  of  another  man,  she  was  at  liberty  to  take 
her  share  of  the  goods  and  her  children  to  her  new  home.  The  tepee  of  the 
Indian  family  being  one  of  their  most  valuable  possessions,  one  would  natur- 
ally suppose  that  an  Indian  widow  becoming  the  wife  of  another  man  would 
want  her  share  of  it,  if  not  the  article  itself,  or  its  value  as  represented  by 
something  else ;  yet  such  was  not  the  case.  She  was  satisfied  to  take  such  of 
his  worldly  goods  as  she  was  entitled  to,  and  could  carry  away,  leaving  the 
tepee,  with  its  good  will,  to  the  remaining  members  of  the  family.  When 
it  came  to  the  last  widow,  she  was  tben  the  sole  owner  of  this  habitation  and 
could  do  with  it  as  she  chose.  Should  the  woman,  however,  be  taken  by  an- 


LODGE  AND  WIND   BREAK. 


88  TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG  OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 

other  Indian  for  his  wife,  be  was  supposed,  if  he  had  sufficient  wealth,  to 
pay  a  reasonable  price  for  tbe  lodge  to  its  former  owners,  or  return  it  to 

them. 

As  the  Indian's  worldly  possessions  were  few,  so  his  standards  of  value 
were  limited.  Horses  and  mules  were  tbe  chief  portions  of  his  wealth;  these 
were  the  general  standard  of  value  among  all  tribes  owning  them.  Among 
some  of  the  tribes  where  horses  were  plentiful  and  easily  procured,  their 
value  was  not  rated  so  high  as  where  the  contrary  conditions  prevailed. 
One  good  horse  was  usually  considered  worth  two  poor  ones. 

Next  to  their  horses,  the  principal  standard  of  value  was  the  buffalo  robe. 
One  good  horse  was  usually  considered  worth  twenty  buffalo  skins.  But 
where  the  buffalo  was  abundant  and  easily  killed,  a  lesser  value  was  placed 
on  the  animal's  hide. 

Again  a  tepee  was  rated  as  worth  from  two  to  twenty  horses  according  to 
its  size  and  condition.  In  many  places,  especially  on  the  barren  plains,  the 
poles  of  the  lodge  over  which  the  skins  were  stretched  were  more  difficult  to 
procure  than  the  robes,  and  were  accordingly  more  highly  valued. 

The  dressed  skins  of  the  deer  and  antelope,  bear  skins  and  other  animals, 
also  had  a  general  value  among  most  of  the  tribes.  The  bow  and  arrow, 
pipes,  knives,  and  trinkets  of  various  kinds,  especially  if  procured  from  the 
whites,  were  all  rated  by  the  excellence  of  the  article  or  by  the  difficulty  in 
obtaining  it. 

A 11  Indians,  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific  Ocean,  and  from  the  central 
portion  of  Mexico  to  the  country  occupied  by  the  Esquimaux  in  the  British 
possessions,  in  whatever  respects  they  differed,  or  whether  one  nation  was 
more  intelligent  than  another,  or  more  advanced  in  the  arts  of  civilization, 
or  in  war,  had  the  distinguishing  marks  of  the  North  American  Indian  in- 
delibly imprinted  upon  them. 

Their  personal  appearance,  their  mode  of  life,  their  innate  cruelty,  the 
treatment  of  their  women,  animals,  and  captives,  were  distinctly  and  purely 
Indian,  and  nothing  else.  Their  amusements  and  pastimes;  their  inability 
to  remain  long  in  one  place;  their  resistance  to  the  advance  of  civilization  ; 
their  tenacity  of  life  in  its  primeval  state,  all  were  so  distinctly  Indian  as  to 
be  very  noticeable,  no  matter  how  far  they  might  have  been  removed  from 
savage  life.  The  traits,  habits,  characteristics,  and  customs  might  differ 
widely  in  different  Indian  nations,  yet  all  unmistakably  showed  their  com- 
mon origin;  it  is  probably  for  this  reason  that  some  one  once  made  the  silly 
and  often-quoted  remark,  "See  one  Indian  and  you  have  seen  all." 

No  more  untruthful  statement  could  be  made.  A  person  who  by  personal 
intercourse,  had  become  familiar  with  the  different  nations,  could  pick  out 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS.  89 

the  members  of  different  nations  wherever  he  found  them,  without  hearing 
them  speak  a  word.  He  could  do  this  as  readily  as  any  one  can  make  the 
distinction  between  a  white  person  and  a  black  one.  By  looking  at  their 
implements  of  war,  their  handiwork  and  personal  effects,  an  experienced 
person  could  tell  at  sight  which  nation  had  made  them.  When  coming 
upon  places  where  Indians  had  camped,  or  in  following  their  trails,  an  old 
mountaineer,  or  an  experienced  Indian  fighter,  could  tell  almost  at  a  glance 
what  nation  had  been  there.  So  distinctly  had  each  Indian  nation  its  own 
way  of  making  its  camps  that  the  trappers  and  plainsmen  who  had  been 
among  them  for  any  length  of  time  would  voluntarily,  or  involuntarily,  fall 
into  the  habit  of  making  their  own  camps  precisely  like  the  Indians  in 
whose  country  they  were.  To  the  ordinary  person  these  abandoned  camps 
would  indicate  nothing;  but  to  the  experienced  eye  they  would  not  only  tell 
with  surprising  accuracy  who  the  former  occupants  were,  but  could  at  a 
glance,  tell  their  number,  how  long  they  had  been  there,  how  long  they  had 
been  gone,  the  direction  in  which  they  went,  whether  they  were  a  war  or 
hunting  party,  and  other  important  things. 


90  TWENTY   YEARS  AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 


CHAPTER    VIII. 

INDIAN   WOOING  AND  MARRIAGE    CUSTOMS— BIRTH  OF  AN  INDIAN   BABY- 
INDIAN  WIDOWS  AND  WIDOWHOOD— NIGHT  IN  AN  INDIAN  LODGE. 

How  an  Indian  Secured  a  Wife — Price  of  an  Indian  Maiden — Daily  Occupations  in  tne 
Lodge— Life  in  the  Camp— The  Birth  of  a  Child— Indian  Babies— How  they  were 
cared  for— Endurance  of  Indian  Women— On  Hand  for  the  Promised  Present — How 
Indian  Babies  were  Cradled— Indian  Widows— Weeping  and  Wailing  at  the  Burial 
Place— Genuine  Grief— Married  Women  Slaves— Female  Occupations— How  the 
Family  Lived — Punishments  for  Infidelity — Mourning  for  the  Dead — A  Widow's 
Weeds— Care  and  Affection  for  the  Aged— Choosing  a  Name— How  Names  were 
Selected— Life  in  the  Lodge— No  Privacy,  and  little  Decency  Observed— The  In- 
dian's Affection  for  his  Wife  and  Children— Dying  of  Homesickness — An  Indian 
Elopement. 

WHEN  an  Indian  desired  a  woman  of  his  tribe  for  a  wife  the  custom 
among  many  of  the  nations  was  to  send  one  of  his  friends  to  the  girl's 
father,  or  to  one  of  her  nearest  male  relatives,  to  ascertain  the  price  at 
which  she  was  valued.  An  Indian's  wealth  in  those  days  was  usually 
counted  by  the  number  of  horses  he  had,  and  these  were  the  common 
standard  of  value  in  negotiating  for  a  wife.  The  friend  then  returned  and 
informed  the  wooing  Indian  of  the  price  demanded, — that  is,  the  number  of 
horses  required  to  buy  the  girl, — when  tha  barter  began.  A  certain  num- 
ber of  horses  (always  less  than  the  number  asked)  were  led  to  the  tepee  and 
tied  to  the  pole  of  the  lodge  where  the  girl  slept ;  means  would  then  be  used 
to  induce  some  member  of  the  family  to  come  out.  The  latter,  seeing  the 
horses  so  tied,  knowing  well  the  significance  of  the  act,  immediately  in- 
formed the  head  of  the  family,  or  natural  protector  of  the  girl.  The  barter 
then  began  in  earnest,  and  was  continued  until  the  proposal  was  rejected 
or  accepted.  If  accepted,  the  horses  were  at  once  taken  away  to  the  herd 
of  those  belonging  to  the  girl's  protector.  Should  the  bid  not  be  acceptable 
the  horses  were  left  tied  where  they  were,  when  more  could  be  added  by  the 
wooer,  or  the  lot  taken  away ;  the  latter  meant  that  the  price  demanded  was 
refused. 

The  price  of  an  Indian  maiden  was  from  one  to  forty  horses,  but  on  rare 
occasions  more  were  given,  the  number  usually  depending  on  the  wealth  and 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG  OUR  HOSTILE   INDIANS.  91 

ardor  of  the  suitor.  I  have  known  fifty  horses  to  be  paid  for  a  girl.  If  the 
bid  was  accepted  the  girl  became  the  property  of  the  man  making  the  offer. 
She  had  nothing  whatever  to  say  about  it,  or  about  who  her  future  husband 
should  be.  Should  he  be  the  most  distasteful  person  on  earth  to  her,  she 
was  his  the  moment  her  parents  accepted  the  price  they  had  placed  upon 
her,  and  that  ended  it.  The  husband  was  free  to  do  with  her  as  he  pleased, 
even  to  the  extent  of  taking  her  life.  If  she  died  and  the  parents  had  another 
eligible  daughter,  they  were  supposed  to  make  good  his  loss. 

After  an  Indian  woman  entered  the  married  state  she  was  simply  a  slave. 
The  domestic  life  of  the  females  of  the  wild  tribes  was  peculiar.  They  had 
but  few  amusements  with  which  to  entertain  themselves,  and  no  light 
by  which  to  see  at  night,  except  the  light  of  the  camp  or  lodge  fire.  They 
generally  retired  early,  and  rose  early.  During  the  day  the  old  women 
usually  occupied  themselves  in  tanning  hides,  jerking  meat  (cutting  it  up 
in  strips  and  hanging  it  on  poles  to  dry  in  the  open  air),  making  moccasins, 
leggings,  and  other  clothing  from  skins,  making  and  repairing  lodge  covers, 
taking  care  of  the  animals,  attending  to  general  family  duties,  and  doing  the 
family  cooking.  As  they  had  no  dishes  or  kitchen  utensils,  the  labor  im- 
posed by  cooking  was  very  limited.  When  they  had  a  pot,  everything  was 
cooked  in  and  eaten  from  it.  When  they  had  none  the  meats  were  roasted 
over  the  fire. 

One  would  naturally  suppose  that  women  whose  natural  functions  had 
never  been  impaired  by  the  restraints  of  dress,  who  had  been  reared  from  in- 
fancy in  their  natural  condition,  and  enjoyed  perfect  health,  would  be  pro- 
lific, yet  such  was  not  the  case.  Indian  wives  rarely  had  more  than  two  or 
three  children,  more  frequently  only  one  child,  and  often  none. 

In  extremely  warm  climates  Indian  girls  became  wives  and  mothers  at  the 
age  of  twelve  or  fourteen  years,  and  in  middle  life  appeared  old  and  wrin- 
kled. The  women  were  extremely  hardy  and  their  endurance  and  fortitude 
were  equal  to  that  of  the  men.  I  have  known  an  Indian  camp  while  on  the 
move  to  stop,  and  a  woman  to  have  a  lariat  placed  u*nder  her  arms,  the  end 
thrown  over  the  limb  of  a  tree  or  lodge  pole,  and  in  a  few  minutes,  while 
partly  suspended  in  a  sitting  or  squatting  position,  give  birth  to  a  child. 
In  a  very  few  minutes,  without  assistance,  she  would  be  astride  of  her  horse, 
her  child  on  her  back,  resuming  her  journey  as  if  nothing  unusual  had  hap- 
pened. At  the  first  opportunity  after  the  birth  of  a  child  an  Indian  woman 
would  enter  the  water,  no  matter  how  cold,  and  bathe  herself.  The  child 
was  usually  laid  on  a  robe  or  skin  that  was  covered  with  a  thick  layer  of  the 
dried  contents  of  the  paunch  of  the  buffalo.  This  was  as  fine  and  soft  as 
down.  The  youngster  was  covered  with  this  downy  stuff,  its  arms  placed 


TWENTY    YEARS   AMONG  OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 


alongside  its  body,  the  robe 
drawn  over  and  around  it  and 
tied  with  a  thong.  The  head 
was  supported  by  the  untanned 
skin  of  a  buffalo  calf  or  deer, 
and  so  placed  that  the  child's 
face  alone  was  visible,  present- 
ing the  appearance  of  a  dimin- 
utive mummy.  In  traveling, 
the  mother  would  either  carry 
it  on  her  back,  place  it  on  a 
travois,  or  hang  it  by  a  noose 
over  the  pommel  of  the  saddle. 
Infants  were  often  left  wrapped 
up  in  this  manner  for  days  with- 
out being  taken  out  of  their 
nest.  When  opportunity  of- 
fered they  were  removed,  washed 
and  replaced  in  the  same 
manner.  The  Indians  had  no 
infantile  food,  and  mothers 
nursed  their  young  until  they 
were  four  or  five  years  old.  I 
have  seen  them  run  to  their 
mothers  and  take  their  dinner, 
in  a  standing  position,  from  the 
maternal  fountain. 

An  instance  characteristic  of 
Indian  childbirth  occurred  on 
Chugwater  Creek,  under  my 
immediate  observation,  which 
is  worth  recording.  One  or 
two  army  officers  and  a  few 
civilians  were  engaged  in  a 
game  of  cards  in  an  Indian 
camp.  We  were  in  the  lodge 
of  a  white  man  who  had  an  In- 
dian woman  for  his  wife;  in 
this  lodge  were  several  other 
women.  About  two  o'clock  in  the  morning  one  of  the  women  on  the  other  side 


BABY  CARRIER  ORNAMENTED  WITH  BEAD  WORK 
IN  VARIOUS  COLORS — CHEYENNE. 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS.  93 

of  the  tepee  groaned  as  if  suffering  great  pain.  Some  one  asked  her  what  was 
the  matter;  we  soon  discovered  without  her  answering,  for  in  a  few  minutes 
she  was  strapped  to  the  poles  of  the  lodge  with  a  rawhide  rope  placed  under 
her  arms  and  in  this  position  gave  birth  to  a  child.  I  asked  the  interpreter 
to  tell  her  to  be  quiet,  promising  that  if  she  did  so,  I  would  make 
her  a  present  for  herself  and  child  whenever  she  came  to  my  quarters  at 
the  Fort.  Long  before  I  was  up  next  morning  she  was  there  with  her  child 
on  her  back,  waiting  for  me. 

Indian  children  were  spoiled  by  being  permitted  to  have  their  own  way. 
They  were  allowed  to  grow  up  like  young  animals,  with  no  other  training 
than  the  force  of  example.  Hence  every  generation  was  precisely  like  its 
predecessor.  The  child  was  inured  to  hardship  and  endurance  from  infancy. 
As  the  youngster  emerged  into  boyhood  or  girlhood,  it  did  as  it  pleased, 
rarely  being  corrected,  taught,  or  restrained  in  any  way.  Though  the  In- 
dians were  fond  of  their  children  they  were  not  given  to  manifesting  their 
affection  towards  them.  They  seemed  rather  to  regard  them  with  total  in- 
difference until  such  time  as  the  youth  was  old  enough  to  enter  the  list  of 
warriors,  and  the  girl  was  old  enough  to  be  salable  as  a  wife. 

Children  usually  ran  naked  until  they  were  from  ten  to  fifteen  years 
of  age,  though  they  commonly  wore  moccasins  to  protect  their  feet.  After 
free  access  to  the  family  dinner  pot,  their  stomachs  were  very  much 
distended  and  out  of  shape ;  and  when  a  belt  was  fastened  tightly  around 
their  waists,  they  presented  a  most  peculiar  and  grotesque  appearance.  As 
a  rule  Indian  children  were  healthy  and  there  was  but  little  disease  among 
them;  they  were  not  subject  to  the  diseases  of  children  of  the  white  people, 
such  as  measles,  whooping  cough,  etc. 

Indian  mothers  showed  considerable  ingenuity  in  making  toys  for 
their  children.  Toy  dolls,  often  grotesque  in  dress  and  appearance,  were 
common  enough.  Some  of  them  were  made  to  represent  warriors  and  were 
adorned  with  miniature  bows  and  arrows,  and  shields,  thus  early  instilling 
the  spirit  of  war  into  the  minds  of  the  young.  Toy  canoes,  miniature 
horses  with  mounted  warriors  on  them,  and  various  other  kinds  of  toys 
could  be  found  in  almost  every  Indian  camp. 

Infidelity  on  the  part  of  the  women  was  almost  unknown  among  the 
majority  of  the  wild  Indians,  as  the  punishment  for  that  offense  was  so 
severe  that  no  woman  cared  to  incur  it.  She  was  even  liable  to  lose  her 
life  for  the  offense,  as  the  unwritten  law  of  the  Indians  was  an  eye  for  an 
eye,  and  a  tooth  for  a  tooth.  The  punishment  liable  to  be  inflicted  on  an 
Indian  who  had  killed  one  of  his  wives  was  that  some  relative  of  the  woman 
might  kill  him  at  the  first  opportunity.  The  punishment  for  infidelity 


94 


TWENTY   YEARS  AMONG  OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 


among  several  of  the  wild  nations,  especially  the  Sioux,  was  called  "passing 
on  the  prairie."  The  offending  woman  was  inveigled  out  of  the  lodge 
when  she  was  immediately  seized  by  a  number  of  Indians  in  waiting,  taken 
a  distance  from  the  camp,  thrown  upon  her  back  upon  the  ground,  a  man 
holding  each  hand  and  foot,  when  each  member  of  the  party  one  by  one 
violated  her  person.  She  was  thenceforth  an  outcast  of  the  tribe,  and  the 
lawful  prey  of  any  man.  She  could  not  enter  the  lodge  of  a  medicine  man, 
or  other  Indian  whose  medicine  or  superstition  was  against  this  class. 
The  Apaches  and  Navajoes  cut  off  the  nose  of  the  offending  female  as  pun- 
ishment for  infidelity.  The  Comanches 
slit  the  nose  from  the  point  to  its 
connection  with  the  forehead,  and  pre- 
vented the  wound  from  uniting.  The 
Cheyennes  were  at  liberty  to  inflict 
such  punishment  as  they  pleased,  but 
their  usual  mode  was  to  return  the 
guilty  woman  to  her  parents,  compelling 
them  to  restore  the  property,  or  its 
value,  which  was  originally  paid  for  her. 
There  was,  aside  from  the  ques- 
tion of  morals,  a  special  reason  why  the 
men  were  polygamous.  They  were 
almost  constantly  engaged  in  war  and 
their  number  was  depleted  in  conse- 
quence. Hence  the  women  usually  out- 
numbered the  men  two  or  three  to 
one.  When  an  Indian  died,  his  wives 
were  at  liberty  to  become  the  wives  of 
another  member  of  the  nation.  He 
was  not  compelled  to  buy  a  wife  after  her  widowhood,  as  when  she  was  a 
maiden,  unless  she  returned  to  her  family  and  refused  to  become  the  wife  of 
another  without  again  being  bought.  When  a  woman  lost  her  husband  she 
went  into  mourning,  and  evinced  her  grief  and  proclaimed  her  widow- 
hood at  the  same  time  by  cutting  off  her  long  hair.  As  long  as  she  remained 
a  widow  she  would  visit  the  burial  place  of  her  husband,  remaining  there 
for  hours  weeping  and  wailing  bitterly.  If  the  actions  of  the  women  at  the 
burial  places  were  a  true  index  of  their  feelings,  their  grief  was  both  genuine 
and  poignant. 

When  an  Indian  lost  a  favorite  wife  or  child,  he  too  exhibited  his  mourn- 
ing by  cutting  off  one  or  both  of  the  long  plaits  of  his  hair.     Some  of  them 


SIOUX   WABKIOB   IN   MOURNING. 


TWENTY   YEARS  AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 


would  cut  off  the  braid  of  their  scalp  lock  and  blacken  their  faces  with  coals 
from  the  fire.  Some  would  cut  off  the  tails  and  manes  of  their  horses  and 
mules,  which  effected  a  strange  transformation  in  their  appearance, 

The  affection  of  the  Indian  for  the  aged  of  their  families  was  very  marked, 
and  was  one  of  the  few  redeeming  features  of  their  vicious  nature.  Many 
of  them  lived  to  a  good  old  age,  if  their  appearance  was  an  indication. 
These  were  as  tenderly 
cared  for  in  their  help- 
lessness as  were  the 
young  babies.  In  going 
from  place  to  place  they 
were  given  an  animal 
to  ride,  if  they  were 
able  to  use  it.  When 
too  infirm  to  mount  a 
horse  they  were  placed 
on  the  Indian  travois, 
and  were  transported  in 
the  same  manner  as 
were  the  young  child- 
ren and  the  sick  or 
wounded.  It  was  the 
special  delight  and 
duty  of  one  of  their 
grown-up  children,  or 
if  there  were  none,  then 
of  their  friends,  to  care 
for  them;  so  that  the 
aged  and  infirm  were 
rarely  neglected. 
These  persons  looked 
after  their  every  want, 
served  them  with  food, 
saw  that  thejT  had  a 
good  place  to  sleep,  and 
afforded  them  every  Indian  comfort.  There  was,  of  course,  no  choice  for 
either  sex  as  to  what  they  should  do  in  life.  When  the  male  arrived  at 
man's  estate  he  had  only  one  line  of  endeavor  open  to  him — to  hunt  and 
fight ;  and  the  female  had  only  one  also — to  bear  children  and  to  work  for 
her  lord  and  master. 


CHILD'S  RATTLE  AND  QUIRT. 


96  TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG  OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 

Among  them  the  question  of  ''Woman's  rights"  was  settled  absolutely. 
She  had  the  undisputed  right  to  labor,  and  she  was  not  expected  to  complain 
about  it.  Slave  as  she  was  by  heredity  and  environment,  she  accepted  her 
lot  uncomplainingly.  The  women  did  not  question  the  right  of  their  lords 
not  to  do  a  stroke  of  work;  and  the  latter  did  not  question  their  women's 
right  to  do  all  the  camp  drudgery,  and  endure  without  a  murmur  the  hard- 
ships of  their  menial  position. 

The  manner  of  selecting  names  varied  with  different  nations,  although 
they  were  all  of  about  the  same  character.  They  had  no  surnames.  The 
male  children  were  generally  named  after  some  animal,  or  given  a  name  in- 
dicating some  personal  peculiarity,  or  commemorating  some  event  or  mat- 
ter of  note,  as  I  shall  hereafter  describe.  The  names  of  the  females  were 
always  in  the  diminutive;  a  woman  retained  the  name  that  was  given  to 
her  when  she  was  a  baby  throughout  her  natural  life,  unless  she  changed 
it  for  some  good  and  substantial  reason.  There  was  no  prefix  as  Mrs.  or  Miss; 
when  a  woman  became  a  wife  she  did  not  take  her  husband's  name,  but  re- 
mained the  same  plain  Yellow  Chin,  Sweet  Grass,  Yellow  Leaf,  Small  Tree, 
or  Running  Water,  as  before. 

A  child  might  have  a  pet  or  diminutive  name  given  it  while  very  young, 
but  with  the  privilege  of  exchanging  it  for  another  of  its  own  selection  when 
it  arrived  at  the  age  of  puberty.  A  change  of  name  was  to  gratify  their  own 
wishes  until  the  boy  was  grown  to  be  a  warrior  and  had  counted  a  coup. 
So  it  was  in  naming  their  animals  and  favorite  camping-places.  Nearly  all 
rivers  and  streams  known  to  them  were  given  permanent  names.  The  large 
mountains  also  had  names  by  which  they  were  known,  and  so  had  notable 
places  in  their  country.  These  supplied  names  for  children  born  near 
them. 

Nearly  all  the  wild  Indians  were  polygamists.  The  number  of  wives 
that  an  Indian  could  maintain  varied  with  different  nations,  but  the  num- 
ber usually  depended  upon  his  means  to  buy  them.  Sometimes  he  would 
have  from  one  to  twenty.  Strange  as  it  may  seem,  there  was  rarely 
jealousy  among  them.  Their  home  life  was  generally  congenial,  and  a 
married  man  was  usually  kind  to  his  entire  household.  Ill-feeling  rarely 
existed,  much  less  was  it  ever  shown  in  an  Indian  family.  Should  the  hus- 
band show  marked  attention  to  one  of  bis  wives  it  was  taken  as  a  matter  of 
course,  and  the  favored  one  was  not  slighted  or  abused  by  the  others.  All 
the  wives,  be  they  few  or  many,  lived  in  the  same  lodge,  and  there  was 
little  or  no  privacy.  Each  wife  had  her  own  particular  place  in  the  lodge;  if 
she  had  children  they  slept  with  her.  The  only  division  between  tho 
sleeping  places,  w.hich  were  always  on  the  ground,  was  at  the  ona  next  to 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS.  97 

the  opening.  Two  sticks  might  be  stuck  in  the  ground  and  a  skin  or  blanket 
hung  on  them.  This  was  the  only  screen  in  the  entire  lodge. 

The  treatment  of  the  female  in  the  civilized  world  is  usually  considered 
the  standard  by  which  man;s  moral  qualities  can  be  estimated.  This  rule 
could  scarcely  be  applied  to  the  Indians,  for  the  males  of  every  Indian  na- 
tion, with  one  or  two  minor  exceptions,  compelled  the  women  to  do  all  the 
labor  and  menial  drudgery.  One  would  naturally  conclude  that  there  could 
be  little  or  no  affection  between  a  man  and  wives  so  treated.  Such  was  not 
the  case,  however,  for  the  affection  of  an  Indian  for  his  family  and  children 
was  particularly  marked,  although  rarely  demonstrative.  His  love  of  home, 
not  as  a  locality,  but  as  a  place  where  his  family  and  friends  were,  was  in- 
tense. To  be  separated  from  kith  and  kin  was  a  hardship.  Therefore  it  is 
not  strange  that  nostalgia  was  common  among  captives;  they  have  been 
known  to  die  of  homesickness,  and  not  unfrequently  went  crazy  from  the 
refusal  of  their  captors  to  allow  them  to  return  to  their  kindred  and  friends. 

Among  the  far  Northwestern  nations  the  unwritten  law  was  that  a  man 
should  select  his  wives  from  different  families.  In  some  of  them  divorce — 
if  such  it  could  be  called — was  easily  obtained.  A  woman  could  leave  her 
husband  at  will  and  return  to  her  parents,  taking  her  children  with  her. 
This  was  considered  a  great  disgrace  to  the  husband.  It  sometimes  hap- 
pened that  an  Indian  would  steal  the  wife  of  another.  When  this  occurred 
the  family  of  the  girl  was  expected  to  return  to  the  husband  the  amount 
he  had  originally  paid  for  her.  The  man  and  abducted  weman  would  go  to 
another  tribe  and  become  a  part  of  it. 

Different  tribes  had  different  ways  of  settling  the  value  of  a  runaway 
wife.  Among  some  of  them,  the  new  husband  was  compelled  to  pay 
the  former  husband  for  his  loss  a  number  of  horses,  skins,  or  other  articles 
of  value. 

Captive  women  and  children,  especially  when  the  captives  were  superior 
in  intelligence  and  cleanliness,  became  the  prisoners  or  wives  of  their  cap- 
tors. This  custom  was  followed  for  various  reasons.  First,  it  did  not  cost 
anything  to  possess  these  women.  Second,  it  was  the  desire  of  the  captors 
to  induce  their  prisoners  to  become  part  of  their  own  people.  Again,  it  pre- 
vented an  effort  on  the  part  of  the  females  to  escape.  Among  some  of  the 
nations  a  female  thus  married  was  sometimes  treated  with  kindness,  not 
only  by  the  man  whose  wife  she  became  but  by  the  people  in  general,  though 
this  was  rare. 


98  TWENTY  YEARS  AMONG  OUR  .HOSTILE  'INDIANS. 


CHAPTER    IX. 

INDIAN  AMUSEMENTS  AND  PASTIMES— THEIR  THIRST  FOR  GAMBLING— THEIR 
GAMES  OF  SKILL  AND  CHANCE— EXPERTNESS  IN  THROWING  A  KNIFE. 

The  Indian's  Limited  Amusements— Horse-racing  the  Favorite  Pastime — Betting  on 
the  Results — Women  Gamblers — Ball  Playing — Skill  of  the  Players — How  the 
Game  was  Played — Proficiency  in  Running  and  Jumping — Skill  in  Throwing  the 
Knife — Indian  Music  and  Musical  Instruments — Serenading  Dusky  Maidens — The 
Romance  of  Indian  Youth — Admiring  Himself  in  Nature's  Looking-glass — Lack  of 
Amusements  and  Pastimes  in  Winter. 

ALL  Indians  had  amusements  and  pastimes  of  their  own,  though  the  more 
ignorant  the  Indian  the  fewer  were  his  pleasures.  When  the  white  man  in- 
troduced playing  cards  among  them,  they  soon  learned  tc  use  them  after 
their  own  fashion,  and  this  enabled  them  to  gratify  their  thirst  for  gambling. 

The  Indian  did  not  learn  the  vice  of  gambling  from  the  white  man.  It 
was  universal  among  the  savage  tribes  when  the  white  man  first  came  in 
contact  with  them.  This  penchant  for  gambling  was  the  natural  result  of 
being  compelled  to  pass  long  periods  in  a  state  almost  approaching  torpidity. 
They  indulged  in  it  to  break  the  monotony  of  their  long  winter  days,  when 
frosts  and  deep  snows  shut  them  off  from  the  chase  and  all  active  outdoor 
life.  Their  sports  were  few,  but  their  quickness  of  eye  and  agility  of  move- 
ment lent  a  peculiar  interest  to  their  simple  games. 

Horse- racing  was  a  favorite  sport  with  all  of  them.  They  raced  their  best 
horses  at  all  times,  using  the  lash  unmercifully,  driving  them  to  their 
utmost  speed.  In  these  races  they  would  usually  bet  on  the  result,  but  as 
their  worldly  possessions  were  limited,  and  some  of  them  absolutely  indispens- 
able, notably  their  weapons,  horses,  horse  equipments,  and  articles  of  daily 
use,  these  were  not  usually  risked,  though  they  were  always  ready  to  wager 
such  articles  as  they  could  spare.  The  women  also  bet  on  these  races  among 
themselves,  and  occasionally  acted  as  jockeys,  and  handled  the  horses  with 
skill.  At  times  children  also  rode.  The  whole  population  of  the  eamp 
would  turn  out  at  a  horse  race,  all  taking  great  interest  in  it.  As  they  had 
no  way  of  timing  horses,  their  races  usually  consisted  of  matching  two  or 
more,  usually  two,  and  the  fleeter  one  was  declared  the  winner.  Another 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS.  99 

favorite  amusement  was  ball  playing.  In  this  they  used  a  ball  stuffed  with 
hair,  the  players  having  two  bats  shaped  something  like  a  lawn  tennis 
racquet.  They  used  one  in  each  hand,  and  were  expert  in  playing  the  game. 
They  sometimes  batted  the  ball,  but  the  favorite  mode  of  putting  it  over  the 
goal  was  to  carry  it  over  on  their  racquets. 

When  a  ball  game  was  to  be  played,  the  Indians  were  organized  on  two 
sides,  a  captain  over  each  was  selected,  and  a  referee  chosen.  Two  posts 
were  set  up  at  each  end  of  the  field ;  the  game  consisted  of  passing  the  ball 
between  these  two  posts  or  goals,  each  side  having  its  own  end  of  the  field. 
A  game  would  last  one  or  two  hours.  It  was  very  exciting,  and  the  only 
surprise  to  me  was  that  they  did  not  fight  or  squabble  among  themselves, 
for  they  were  rough  players,  and  would  hit  each  other  unmercifully 
with  their  racquet  when  striking  at  the  ball.  To  me  these  terrific 
whacks  at  one  another  seemed  intentional,  although  they  appeared  to  take 
them  good  naturedly.  The  players  looked  decidedly  picturesque,  having 
nothing  on  but  their  breech-cloths  and  a  pair  of  moccasins,  their  tall,  lean, 
erect  forms  making  them  appear  like  athletes.  They  were  good  runners, 
and  played  the  game  with  skill. 

Running  was  another  favorite  amusement.  A  match  between  two  In- 
dians, with  the  judges  appointed  and  everything  in  readiness,  was  sure  to 
be  interesting.  Sometimes  the  race  was  for  a  short  distance,  probably  an 
eighth  of  a  mile.  Another  amusement  was  jumping.  In  this  some  of  them 
attained  great  proficiency.  The  standing  and  running  jump  was  practiced 
as  well  as  the  hop,  skip,  and  jump.  The  game  of  jackstones  was  a  favor- 
ite pastime.  They  amused  themselves,  too,  by  target  practice  with  bow 
and  arrow. 

Throwing  the  knife  at  an  object  was  a  sport  at  which  the  majority  of  In- 
dians were  particularly  expert.  Taking  the  knife  in  the  palm  of  the  hand 
with  the  handle  toward  the  end  of  the  fingers,  and  standing  at  from  ten  to 
thirty  feet  from  the  target,  they  would,  by  a  dexterous  movement  of  the 
forearm,  throw  the  knife  at  an  object  often  not  larger  than  a  saucer,  and 
with  such  precision  that  the  point  of  the  knife  struck  within  this  small 
circle  at  almost  every  throw.  I  have  seen  them  stand  at  a  distance  of 
twenty-five  feet  from  the  target  and  hit  it  twenty-five  or  thirty  times 
consecutively. 

A  buffalo  chase  or  a  hunt  was  not  regarded  as  an  amusement.  It  was 
more  like  work  forced  upon  them  by  the  necessity  of  securing  their  food 
and  clothing,  for  upon  their  success  their  existence  depended.  They  did 
not  seem  to  recognize  it  as  a  pastime,  but  often  went  reluctantly  about  it  as 
one  doing  hard  work.  Neither  was  the  killing  of  small  game  sport;  it 


100  TWENTY   YEARS  AMONG  OUR  HOSTILE   INDIANS. 

was  bard  work  with  them  for  they  were  frequently  compelled  to  dismount 
and  crawl  a  long  distance  to  get  within  shooting  range.  Few,  if  any,  of  the 
wild  Indians  exhibited  any  musical  talent. 

What  little  musical  efforts  they  attempted  were  confined  to  rude  lutes,  and 
consisted  of  a  few  notes  without  change  or  expression. 

All  noises  or  sounds  being  in  the  same  key,  neither  were  they  played  har- 
moniously. 

In  beating  torn  toms  and  flint  hides  at  ceremonies  and  dances,  perfect  time 
was  observed  by  each  musician. 

One  of  their  musical  instruments  was  a  whistle  or  lute  made  of  the  bone 
of  an  animal  or  bird,  or  from  a  hollowed  twig  of  the  red  willow  or  birch. 

An  Indian  who  could  play  a  few  notes  on  such  an  instrument  considered 
himself  an  accomplished  musician,  and,  dressing  himself  in  his  most  gor- 
geous attire,  would  stand  near  some  picturesque  place — a  spring  if  there  was 
one  in  the  vicinity — where  the  young  girls  came  for  water,  and,  admiring 
the  reflection  of  himself  in  the  water,  blow  his  lute  for  hours  for  the  enter- 
tainment of  the  dusky  maidens. 

Some  of  them  made  a  banjo-like  instrument,  with  two  or  three  twisted 
sinew  strings,  which  were  tightened  over  the  drum-like  head.  The 
strings  were  picked  with  the  fingers,  or  struck  with  a  hard  substance  held 
between  the  thumb  and  first  finger. 

The  noise  made  on  such  an  instrument  was  anything  but  grateful  to  the 
ear  of  one  at  all  musical. 

Their  tambourines,  made  of  flint  hides,  were  the  most  perfect  musical 
instrument  they  possessed,  and  nearly  every  family  had  one  or  two,  which 
were  in  use  almost  every  clear  night ;  for  among  all  the  savages,  night  was 
the  time  for  merrymaking,  and  at  these  times  music  was  indispensable. 

Vocal  music,  if  such  it  can  be  called,  consisted  of  three  or  four  unpleasant 
sounding  guttural  notes.  When  singing  in  chorus  they  all  sang  together, 
but  at  the  conclusion  of  each  song  all  joined  in  a  common  yell. 

None  of  their  songs  were  poetical,  but  a  repetition  of  a  few  sentences  in 
relation  to  the  subject  in  which  they  were  engaged.  If  in  merrymaking, 
the  words  related  to  the  charms  of  both  sexes,  and  were  the  same  that  had 
been  used  by  them  for  generations. 

The  amusements  I  have  mentioned  were  nearly  all  out-of-door  sports,  and 
were  indulged  in  during  the  warm  or  summer  months.  The  majority  of 
Indians  had  few  or  no  winter  amusements,  especially  those  living  in  a  cold 
or  inhospitable  climate.  Their  principal  occupation  during  the  cold  weather 
was  to  keep  themselves  warm  and  secure  their  food. 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS.  101 


JNT 


CHAPTER    X. 

INDIAN  WOMEN  TANNERS— THE  MAKING  OF  AN  INDIAN  LODGE— INDIAN 
ART  AND  ARTISTS— AN  INDIAN  VILLAGE  ON  THE  MOVE. 

Indian  Tepees  and  Camps — How  Lodge  Covers  were  made — Lodge  Poles — Erecting  Lodges 
— The  Entrance — Suffering  from  Cold — Going  Barefoot  in  the  Snow — Decorating 
the  Lodge  Cover — Deeds  of  Valor  recorded  in  Picture  Writing — Some  well 
Executed  Drawings — Going  to  bed  with  their  Clothes  on — Interior  Arrangement  of 
a  Lodge — Expert  Horsewomen — Dexterity  in  throwing  the  Lasso — Packing  the 
Animals — The  Travois — Adjusting  the  Pack — How  the  Old,  Infirm,  and  Children 
were  Transported — A  Village  on  the  Move — A  Strange  Sight — Crossing  Streams — 
Clothing  that  was  never  Cleansed — A  Filthy  Race — The  Art  of  Packing  Animals — 
How  Pack  Animals  were  prevented  from  lying  down. 

INDIAN  women  did  all  the  tanning  for  the  family  requirements,  and  the 
work  was  done  in  various  ways.  When  it  was  intended  that  a  skin  should 
be  very  soft  and  pliable,  only  the  brain  of  the  animal  and  clear  fresh  water 
were  used.  Skins  tanned  in  this  way  were  made  into  dresses,  leggings, 
moccasins,  and  other  articles  of  personal  and  wearing  apparel. 

The  skins  used  for  lodge  covers,  and  hides  used  for  horse  equipments  and 
coarser  articles  of  home  and  camp  life  were  tanned  in  a  different  way  and 
with  much  less  care.  They  were  simply  thrown  into  the  water  and  allowed 
to  remain  until  the  hair  fell  off,  when  they  were  stretched  tight  on  the 
ground  by  driving  sticks  through  holes  cut  in  the  edges  while  the  hide  waa 
wet  and  soft.  Scraping  knives  made  from  the  horn  of  the  elk  were  gener- 
ally used.  The  women  would  get  down  on  their  hands  and  knees  on  the 
hide  and  scrape  off  all  the  flesh  and  pulpy  matter.  After  the  hide  had  dried 
it  was  put  through  a  process  of  softening  before  it  was  in  condition  to  be 
used  as  a  lodge  cover.  The  hide  used  for  this  purpose  was  usually  that  of  a 
buffalo  bull,  as  it  was  much  thicker  and  more  serviceable  than  that  of  a 
buffalo  cow.  Lodge  covers  were  made  by  the  women,  who  sewed  them  to- 
gether with  thongs.  From  ten  to  twenty  hides  were  required  for  the  cover- 
ings of  each  lodge  according  to  its  size. 

Poles  for  the  lodges  were  difficult  to  obtain  by  the  Indians  of  the  plains, 
where  wood  was  scarce  and  good  straight  poles  hard  to  find,  and  they  were 


102 


TWENTY  YEARS,  AMONG,  QJJR  HOSTILE  INDIANS. 


accordingly  highly  valued.  They  were  procured  and  finished  by  the  women, 
and  were  necessarily  of  sound,  straight  young  trees,  generally  of  pine,  birch, 
or  other  light  but  strong  wood.  They  were  from  one  and  one-half  to  three 
inches  in  diameter,  and  from  fifteen  to  twenty-five  feet  in  length.  The  bark 
and  every  small  knot  or  growth  was  carefully  removed  from  them  and  they 
were  made  perfectly  smooth.  In  putting  up  a  lodge  from  fifteen  to  twenty- 
five  of  these  poles  were  used.  The  covering  was  drawn  over  them  and  fas- 
tened with  skewers  or  sticks  where  the  edges  of  the  covering  met.  At  the 
top  of  the  lodge  was  a  large  flap  in  the  corner  of  which  the  end  of  a  pole 

was  inserted.  When  this  flap 
was  closed  it  kept  the  heat  in 
and  the  cold  out,  and  unless 
opened  when  the  fire  was 
built  the  interior  would  soon 
be  filled  with  smoke.  The 
lower  edge  of  the  lodge  cov- 
ering was  fastened  to  the 
ground  by  long  pegs  driven 
deep  into  the  earth.  The  pegs 
prevented  the  lodge  from  be- 
ing blown  over  by  high 
winds.  The  entrance  was  the 
only  hole  of  any  size,  except 
the  top,  in  the  entire  cover- 
ing. This  entrance  was  cov- 
ered by  a  hide,  drawn  over  a 
hoop  made  from  a  small 

branch  and  hung  over  the  hole.     The  opening  was  rarely  closed,  except  in 
cold  weather,  or  to  keep  the  dogs  out. 

Even  the  best  of  these  lodges  afforded  but  slight  protection  against  severe 
storms  or  bitter  cold.  Rain  found  its  way  into  them  and  the  snow  blew 
through  the  holes  underneath  the  covering,  half-filling  the  interior,  making 
it  exceedingly  uncomfortable.  During  severe  rainstorms  the  beds  and 
sometimes  the  lodges  were  flooded,  and  the  occupants  were  compelled  to  flee 
to  higher  ground  with  such  effects  as  they  could  carry. 

The  fire  in  the  lodges  was  necessarily  built  on  the  ground;  around  it  the 
women  and  children  would  huddle  to  keep  warm.  During  winter  storms 
when  the  Indians  were  compelled  to  go  about  their  camps  in  the  perform- 
ance of  necessary  duties,  they  often  did  so  barefoot,  as  their  moccasins  and 
leggings  would  become  "saturated  in  the  snow  or  rain  in  a  short  time;  when 


WHISTLING   BEAR — BRULE  SIOUX. 


KIOWA   LODGE. 


Twenty  Years  Among  Our  Hostile  Indians. 


Page  103 


104  TWENTY   YEARS  AMONG  OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 

in  that  condition  were  cold  and  disagreeable  to  the  wearer.  They  preferred 
to  keep  their  footwear  dry  even  at  the  expense  of  temporary  discomfort. 
Both  men  and  women  would  frequently  carry  their  moccasins  and  leggings 
in  their  hands  after  having  been  caught  in  a  cold  rain  or  snow  storm.  At 
times  during  the  cold  weather  they  would  wear  sandals  made  from  the  flint 
hides  of  some  animal  as  a  protection  to  the  soles  of  the  feet.  During  a  pro- 
longed cold  storm  or  blizzard,  which  was  frequent  in  the  far  north,  the  In- 
dians and  their  animals,  including  their  dogs,  were  great  sufferers. 

Lodges  of  this  description  were  probably  the  best  habitations  that  could 
be  used  by  these  nomads;  for,  being  continually  on  the  move,-  it  was  neces- 
sary to  transport  their  entire  camp  equipment  from  place  to  place.  They 
were  easily  and  quickly  put  up  and  taken  down,  and  it  was  a  rare  thing, 
even  in  the  severest  wind  storm,  for  one  of  them  to  be  blown  down,  although 
it  sometimes  occurred. 

Frequently  the  coverings  were  fantastically  painted  with  figures  outlined 
in  different  colors,  red  and  blue  being  the  favorite.  These  figures  repre- 
sented different  scenes,  some  depicting  a  warrior  seated  on  his  horse  in 
deadly  combat  with  a  hostile  brave;  an  Indian  fighting  a  bear  with  his 
spear;  an  Indian  on  foot  killing  a  man  with  bis  bow  and  arrow,  tomahawk, 
knife,  or  lance;  or  some  other  prodigious  deed  of  valor.  Sometimes  the 
entire  lodge  covering  was  decorated  with  these  rude  drawings.  They  gener- 
ally commemorated  some  great  event  in  the  career  of  the  occupant  of  the 
lodge,  or  hairbreadth  escape  of  himself  or  some  of  the  male  members  of  his 
family.  These  drawings  were  usually  made  by  the  men,  some  of  them  show- 
ing considerable  artistic  ability.  Some  of  the  women  also  possessed  no  little 
skill.  Nearly  all  Indians  were  fond  of  decorating  their  lodge  covers  in  this 
manner,  using  the  brightest  colors  they  could  obtain,  and  some  of  their 
imaginary  or  real  deeds  of  valor  were  portrayed  in  the  most  picturesque 
style,  though  they  were  often  more  glaring  than  artistic. 

When  the  wild  Indians  retired  to  sleep  they  wrapped  themselves  in  the 
robes  or  blankets  they  had  worn  during  the  day.  The  beds  were  more  a 
name  than  a  reality ;  these  consisted  of  the  dried  hides  of  buffalo,  horses,  or 
other  animals,  laid  upon  the  ground  to  keep  out  the  dampness.  Occasion- 
ally they  placed  an  additional  buffalo  robe  or  two  on  top.  For  pillows  they 
used  skins,  or  any  bulky,  soft  stuff  which  they  might  have  at  hand.  The 
interior  arrangement  of  an  Indian  lodge  was  a  series  of  such  beds  arranged 
in  a  circle,  leaving  a  space  in  the  center  for  the  fire  on  which  the  cooking 
was  done,  and  it  also  served  to  some  extent  to  warm  the  lodge  in  winter. 

Some  of  the  women  were  expert  at  drawing  designs  on  buckskin  for  bead 
and  porcupine  quill  work.  In  ornamenting  their  clothing  they  would  first 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG  OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS.  105 

draw  the  outlines  of  the  figure,  then  sew  bead  or  porcupine  ornaments  on 
them,  using  an  awl  made  of  bone;  and  the  end  of  a  small  sinew  for  a  needle. 

All  Indian  women  were  expert  riders  and  rode  astride  on  the  animal's 
bare  back,  or  on  a  man's  saddle.  Like  the  men  they  were  expert  in  throw- 
ing the  lasso,  and  were  fearless  of  any  animal,  no  matter  how  vicious. 
Children,  both  boys  and  girls,  were  tied  on  the  backs  of  horses  almost  as 
soon  as  they  were  able  to  walk,  and  taught  to  ride,  to  manage  animals,  and 
to  throw  the  lasso  or  the  lariat  rope. 

When  Indians  moved  their  camp,  which  they  were  frequently  compelled 
to  do,  the  women  did  all  the  packing.  Their  belongings  and  the  whole 
camp  outfit  was  put  in  condition  by  them  for  transportation  and  fastened 
on  travois,  or  packed  on  their  horses,  mules,  and  dogs. 

Travois  were  made  by  lashing  the  ends  of  lodge  poles  together,  then 
throwing  the  lashed  ends  over  the  saddle  of  an  animal,  leaving  the  other  end 
of  the  poles  dragging  on  the  ground  in  the  rear.  Immediately  behind  the 
animal  was  a  large  oval  frame  made  from  the  limbs  of  a  young  tree,  with 
rawhide  thongs  woven  in  and  out  across  it,  so  that  it  somewhat  resembled 
a  lawn  tennis  racquet,  only  that  it  was  much  larger  and  coarser.  This 
frame  was  lashed  to  the  poles  on  each  side,  forming  the  bottom  of  a  rude 
basket  on  which  their  effects  were  to  be  transported.  It  also  served  to  keep 
the  poles  a  sufficient  distance  apart. 

When  the  children,  and  the  sick,  infirm,  or  aged  were  to  be  transported 
on  a  travois,  a  cage-like  covering  of  the  same  material  was  placed  over  this 
platform  and  lashed  to  it;  over  this  lodge  covers  were  thrown  as  a  protection 
against  the  sun,  rain,  or  snow,  as  well  as  to  keep  the  inmates  from  falling 
out.  In  traveling,  each  animal  had  its  travois.  Even  the  dogs  were  not 
exempt  from  this  service;  most  of  them  were  required  to  drag  a  travois 
made  of  small  poles.  Children  not  old  enough  to  care  for  themselves,  but 
too  old  to  be  carried  by  their  mothers,  were  placed  in  them.  Drawing  the 
travois  was  very  severe  on  the  animals.  After  a  short  time  in  this  service 
their  backs  would  become  a  mass  of  raw  sores.  Horses  and  mules  that  had 
been  in  possession  of  the  Indians  for  any  length  of  time  were  rarely  seen 
without  such  sores  or  scars  upon  them,  which  was  sure  evidence  of  their 
labor  in  drawing  the  travois. 

To  one  not  accustomed  to  it  it  was  a  novel  sight  to  see  an  Indian  village 
on  the  move.  Some  of  the  horses  would  have  one,  two,  and  three  children 
on  their  backs  while  dragging  the  travois,  others  would  have  two  women 
astride  in  addition  to  dragging  the  load.  The  travois  and  pack  animals 
were  scattered  in  every  direction  along  the  route,  but  all  moved  together 
toward  one  general  point.  In  dry  weather  the  dust  made  by  one  of  these 


106  TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 

moving  villages  could  be  seen  for  miles.  When  crossing  swollen  streams 
the  work  of  the  women  was  very  laborious.  Everything  had  to  be  removed 
from  the  travois  and  packed  on  the  backs  of  the  animals  to  prevent  the  goods 
from  getting  wet.  Once  across  they  were  replaced  on  the  travois,  and  the 
village  proceeded  until  camp  was  reached,  where  they  erected  the  lodges. 

The  packing  of  animals  was  an  art  in  itself.  The  pack  saddle  was  made, 
both  at  the  pommel  and  cantle,  like  the  figure  "X."  The  bottom,  where  it 
rested  on  the  back  of  the  animal,  was  shaped  something  like  the  bottom  of  a 


INDIAN  TRAVOIS — BLACKFOOT. 

wooden  saddle.  The  Indians  used  strong  rawhide  cinches  to  fasten  the  sad- 
dle to  the  animal.  The  load  was  added  gradually,  and  when  the  pack  was 
complete,  a  rawhide  or  hair  lariat  rope  was  placed  around  and  over  the 
goods  and  over  and  under  the  animal  many  times,  being  fastened  on  the 
crosses  at  the  top  of  the  pommel  and  cantle.  The  pack  of  an  animal  should 
be  so  placed  on  its  back  as  to  have  the  weight  equal  on  both  sides,  and  in 
such  manner  that  it  would  not  slip  or  move,  or  any  portion  of  it  fall  out  or 
get  in  such  position  as  to  cause  repeated  stoppages  to  adjust  it.  Pack  ani- 
mals would  sometimes  carry  a  load  of  five  or  six  hundred  pounds  each,  and, 
when  packed,  it  was  necessary  to  lead  them  around  in  a  circle  constantly  to 


'TWENTY   YEARS  AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS.  '  107 

prevent  them  from  tying  down,  for  should  they  lie  down  with  the  pack  they 
would  be  unable  to  rise  again  unless  the  pack  was  removed.  Of  all  expert 
packers  in  the  mountains  and  on  the  plains,  none  oould  compare  with  Indian 
women. 

People  of  to-day  little  realize  how  long  it  took  the  Indians  to  acquire  or 
accumulate  the  small  amount  of  stuff  they  had  in  their  keeping.  Beads, 
porcupine  work,  Iroquois  shells,  claws  and  teeth  of  bears  and  mountain 
lions,  arrowheads,  lances,  shields,  pipes  and  stems,  bows  and  arrows,  and 
horse  equipments  largely  made  up  their  possessions.  These  were  handed 
down  from  generation  to  generation,  and  were  much  prized  as  having  been 
the  property  of  their  forefathers.  As  they  never  cleaned  or  wasted  their 
effects,  their  dirty  condition  can  be  readily  imagined.  All  their  habitations 
were  foul-smelling  from  the  unutterably  filthy  condition  of  their  entire  be- 
longings. 

All  Indians  were  fond  of  trinkets,  particularly  of  the  Iroquois  shell.  The 
Iroquois  is  a  shell-fish  caught  off  the  coast  of  British  Columbia,  in  the  waters 
of  the  Pacific  Ocean.  The  method  of  catching  it  was  to  attach  a  piece  of 
fresh  meat  to  a  rope  and  sink  it  to  the  bottom  of  the  sea,  when  the  Iroquois 
would  settle  upon  it  as  thick  as  the  quills  on  the  back  of  a  porcupine.  The 
meat  was  then  drawn  to  the  surface,  the  shell-fish  were  laid  in  the  sun,  and 
the  animal  life  soon  passed  out.  The  shell,  when  cleaned  and  polished,  was 
a  beautiful  white,  like  ivory,  and  slightly  curved,  like  a  bear's  claw.  It 
was  from  one,  to  two  and  one-half  inches  in  length,  tapering  from  the  diame- 
ter of  a  rye  straw  at  the  larger  end  nearly  to  a  point.  The  Indians  passed 
sinews  through  these  shells  and  made  necklaces  and  breastplates  of  them  for 
their  women;  the  men  also  wore  them  when  they  could  procure  them.  The 
shells  were  highly  prized  and  expensive,  because  they  were  difficult  to  obtain. 


108  TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 


CHAPTER  XL 

THE  SIGN  LANGUAGE— ITS  MYSTERIOUS   ORIGIN    AND    SIGNIFICANCE— COM- 
MUNICATION BY  SIGNALS. 

Indian  Languages— Their  Strange  Diversity— No  two  Indian  Nations  known  to  Converse 
in  the  Language  of  the  Other— The  Sign  Language— Its  Mysterious  Origin— The 
Arapaho,  Sioux,  Cheyenne,  and  Navajo  Languages— Significance  of  the  Sign  Lan- 
guage— Sign  Language  by  Horse  Riding — The  Sign  Language  of  the  Hands — Diffi- 
cult Sentence  in  the  Sign  Language — An  Incident  in  my  own  Experience — Sign 
Language  by  Movements  of  the  Horse — Sign  Language  by  the  Mirror — Sign  Lan- 
guage by  Smoke — Communicating  at  Long  Distance — How  an  Indian  Wrote  a 
Letter— Hieroglyphics  on  the  Faces  of  Rocks  in  Texas — Rude  Drawing  in  Caves — 
Difficulty  of  Interpreting  Them. 

ALL  Indian  nations  spoke  a  different  language,  and  this  diversity  has 
given  rise  to  much  discussion  among  philologists.  It  must  he  conceded  that 
the  Indian  nations  had  a  very  ancient  history,  as  ibey  lived  in  compara- 
tively close  proximity  to  each  other  and  yet  spoke  wholly  different  tongues. 

The  sign  language  of  the  Indians  was  nearly  universal  among  all  In- 
dian nations,  and  was  handed  down  from  a  remote  period.  Neither  the 
learned  nor  the  unlearned  can  throw  any  light  on  its  origin.  The  Indians 
themselves  did  not  know  how  they  acquired  it.  It  descended  from  their 
ancestors,  and  that  is  all  they  knew  about  it.  The  hieroglyphs  of  the  Aztecs 
are  not  more  mysterious  in  their  origin  than  the  sign  languages  of  the 
Indian  races  of  the  West. 

The  wild  Indian  had  the  faculty  of  adapting  himself  to  his  surroundings, 
so  long  as  they  were  congenial,  and  found  means  at  all  times  to  utilize  every- 
thing suited  to  his  needs. 

Nothing  in  his  entire  existence  was  more  useful  to  him  than  the  sign  lan- 
guage; through  this  silent  means  of  communication  a  mem  her  of  any  tribe 
located  in  Texas,  could  converse  with  a  member  of  another  living  in  the  far 
north,  or  along  the  St.  Lawrence  river,  although  both  were  unconscious  of 
the  existence  of  the  other. 

In  this,  immediately  on  meeting,  conversation  began  by  one  of  these  mys- 
terious mediums;  probably  the  first  was  by  the  movements  of  the  horse  or 
smoke,  when  »i  truce  was  declared ;  then,  if  satisfactory,  a  friendly  conversa- 
tion was  held  by  the  more  complete,  or  comprehensive  means  of  the  signs  by 
the  hands. 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS.  109 

So  well  were  the  signs  understood  by  all,  that  no  practice  was  necessary 
between  the  parties. 

Among  no  other  peoples  in  the  world  speaking  different  languages,  is 
there  a  general  means  of  communication  of  any  kind  that  is  understood  at 
sight.  These  signs  were  exceedingly  graceful,  as  well  as  significant. 

The  oral  language  of  one  nation  might  be  pleasing  to  the  ear;  another 
might  be  harsh,  coarse,  and  guttural ;  in  another  the  words  might  be  very 
few.  It  was  difficult  and  sometimes  almost  impossible  for  an  Indian  nation 
to  acquire  or  speak  intelligently  any  language  but  its  own.  So  it  was  even 
with  tribes  of  the  same  nation.  The  Navajo,  for  instance,  a  tribe  of  the 
great  Athabaskan  nation,  could  scarcely  understand  the  Apache,  who  be- 
longed to  the  same  family.  The  Arapaho  language  in  particular  was  very 
poor,  having  but  a  few  hundred  words,  yet  it  was  extremely  difficult  to  ac- 
quire sufficient  knowledge  of  it  to  converse  on  the  most  ordinary  subjects; 
whereas  the  Sioux  language  was  rich  in  words,  pleasant  in  sound,  and  was 
much  more  easily  acquired.  The  Algonquin  language  was  also  pleasing  to 
the  ear  and  readily  learned. 

Yet  nearly  all  Indians  possessed  a  means  of  ready  communication  between 
themselves  through  the  medium  of  the  sign  language,  wbich  somewhat  re- 
sembled the  method  of  communication  between  mutes.  All  Indians  were 
extremely  reticent,  speaking  but  few  words,  yet  they  would  sit  for  hours 
conversing  with  each  other  in  the  sign  language.  The  sign  language  of 
the  hands  was  highly  significant,  though  it  was  necessary  to  follow  closely 
the  thread  of  conversation,  for  the  wrong  interpretation  of  a  single  sign  was 
sufficient  to  break  the  whole  chain  of  thought. 

Another  peculiarity  was  the  rapidity  with  which  Indians  could  communi- 
cate with  each  other  by  ifc.  The  Sioux  would  by  its  use  express  a  great  deal 
more  in  a  shorter  time  than  by  word  of  mouth. 

The  sign  language  was  very  figurative.  For  instance,  if  an  Indian  de- 
sired to  say  that  you  were  not  truthful,  he  would  touch  his  tongue  with  one 
finger,  and  hold  up  two  fingers  toward  you,  signifying  that  you  were  double- 
tongued,  that  is,  untruthful.  If  he  wished  to  say  that  a  given  place  was 
distant  two,  three,  or  more  days'  journey,  he  would  twirl  the  fingers  of  both 
hands,  one  over  the  other  like  a  wheel  rolling,  inclining  the  head  as  if 
asleep,  and  hold  up  as  many  fingers  as  there  were  "sleeps,"  meaning  nights, 
thus  indicating  the  number  of  days  of  travel  necessary  to  reach  the  place  in 
question.  If  he  desired  to  refer  to  the  past,  he  would  extend  the  hand  in 
front  with  the  index  finger  pointed,  drawing  his  arm  back  with  a  screw 
motion,  meaning  a  long  time  back.  If  he  intended  to  refer  to  the  future, 
he  would  put  his  hand  with  the  index  finger  extended  at  his  back,  pushing 


110  TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG  OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 

it  forward  with  a  screw  motion,  thus  indicating  a  distant  time  in  the  future. 
If  he  desired  to  speak  of  being  on  horseback  he  did  so  by  putting  the  first 
and  second  fingers  over  the  fingers  of  the  left  hand,  representing  a  man  on 
horseback.  If  he  wished  to  state  that  he  had  a  large  quantity  of  anything, 
he  would  make  the  sign  of  a  heap  with  his  two  hands  shaped  like  a 
funnel,  moving  them  upward  from  the  ground  to  a  point,  in  the  form  of  the 

letter  A.  If  he  desired  to  say 
that  he  had  nothing,  he  would 
open  the  palm  of  his  right 
hand  and  in  a  sweeping  way, 
with  a  movement  of  the  fore- 
arm to  the  right  would  indi- 
cate that  the  hand  wasemptj'. 
If  he  desired  to  say  that  he 
had  had  a  good  meal  he  would 
extend  the  thumb  and  fore- 
finger of  his  right  hand  over 
the  region  of  his  stomach, 
moving  the  hand  up  to  his 
mouth,  indicating  that  he  was 
full.  These  are  a  few  of  the 
symbols  of  the  sign  language. 
The  signs  employed  were 
innumerable,  and  every  one 
of  them  illustrated  the  idea  to 
be  conveyed. 

One  of  the  most  difficult 
sign  sentences  that  I  ever 
tried  to  comprehend  was  in 
conversation  with  some  Indians  in  the  South  Park.  We  were  ex- 
pecting to  go  into  battle  the  next  day,  and  the  night  before  one  of  our  Indian 
allies  came  to  me  and  talked  in  the  sign  language.  The  first  sign  given  was 
one  sleep,  after  which  the  right  hand  was  passed  rapidly  under  the  left,  both 
palms  being  opened  downward,  which  meant  "going  in."  The  next  sign 
was  opening  and  shutting  the  fingers  of  each  hand  toward  each  other 
rapidly,  which  meant  to  fight,  then  a  downward  catch  of  the  forefinger,  which 
meant  good  or  true;  and  last,  the  most  incomprehensible  of  all,  the  making 
of  the  figure  0  with  the  index  finger  and  thumb  of  the  right  hand,  turning  the 
hand  over  as  though  emptying  a  bottle.  After  repeated  efforts  to  interpret 
the  last  sign  I  gave  it  up  in  despair,  but  finally  learned  the  translation  of  it 


KICKING   BEAR  S   CAMP — SIOUX. 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS.  Ill 

It  meant  to  pour  something  out.  The  whole  sentence  translated  verbatim 
was,  "To-morrow  I  will  go  in  and  fight  good,  if  I  pour  my  life  out."  Such 
was  the  brief  but  graphic  description  of  his  intentions  as  expressed  by  the 
sign  language. 

Mounted  Indians  often  communicated  in  the  sign  language  by  the  move- 
ments of  their  horses.  I  never  was  able  to  translate  many  of  these  signs, 
but  to  the  Indian  they  were  all  perfectly  plain.  I  have  seen  Indians  con- 
verse in  this  manner  as  far  as  the  eye  could  see,  understanding  each  other 
perfectly.  The  movements  of  the  horses  were  made  in  rapid  succession,  and 
seemed  to  me  in  the  long  distance  all  about  the  same. 

Another  means  of  communication  was  by  the  flashing  of  a  mirror  in  the 
sun.  This  method  of  signaling  was  sometimes  used  for  long  distances.  At 
that  time,  however,  it  was  rare  for  an  Indian  to  have  a  mirror,  and  as  they 
could  only  be  used  in  the  sunlight  they  were  not  of  great  service. 

Still  another  means  of  communication  was  by  fire  and  smoke.  The  latter 
was  of  great  service  while  in  the  mountains,  and  to  the  Indians  was  per- 
fectly intelligible.  Although  smoke  seems  uncontrollable,  yet  they  made  it 
serve  their  purpose  well. 

The  sign  language  enabled  each  nation  of  Indians  to  converse  with  one 
another  intelligently.  By  it  bands  of  warriors  of  different  nations  could 
communicate  at  long  distances,  making  alliances  among  themselves  for 
descent  on  their  enemies  and  for  attacks  upon  settlers,  overland  travelers, 
and  others. 

None  of  the  wild  Indians  had  any  method  of  general  communication  by 
means  of  pen  or  pencil,  although  I  once  saw  an  Indian  letter  written  under 
the  following  circumstances:  Some  traders  had  been  sent  to  trade  with  In- 
dians in  the  vicinity  of  Rawhide  Peak.  The  Indians  had  brought  in  a  great 
many  more  pelts  than  the  traders  expected  would  be  offered,  and  the  stores 
they  brought  for  exchange  soon  ran  low.  An  Indian  took  the  dressed 
hide  of  a  deer  and  pictured  a  letter  on  it  with  colored  crayons.  It  rep- 
resented an  Indian  leading  a  mule  with  a  pack  saddle  on  it;  a  red  roll, 
representing  a  bolt  of  red  cloth;  a  black  tin  can  such  as  powder  is  sold 
in,  and  a  drawing  representing  a  bar  of  lead,  thus  signifying  that  his 
party  wanted  a  pack  mule,  a  roll  of  scarlet  cloth,  some  powder,  lead,  and 
ammunition  to  trade.  This  letter  was  considered  a  great  curiosity  by  all 
who  saw  it. 

Along  some  of  the  streams  in  Texas,  there  is  a  limestone  formation  with 
perpendicular  smooth  walls,  varying  in  height  from  fifty  to  a  hundred  and 
fifty  feet.  On  the  rocks  along  some  of  these  streams  are  petroglyphics, 
drawn  and  cut  by  the  Indians.  They  are  found  in  various  portions  of  that 


112 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 


State,  and  are  the  work  of  different  Indian  nations.  Some  of  the  Jesuit 
Fathers  claimed  to  be  able  to  translate  this  figure  writing,  but  I  have  never 
known  any  two  of  them  to  give  the  same  translation.  My  opinion  is,  that 
the  Indians,  being  in  camp  near  these  places,  drew  and  cut  these  figures  for 
their  own  amusement,  and  without  any  serious  intention  of  perpetuating 
historical  or  other  events.  Nearly  all  the  figures  on  the  rocks  in  that  State 
are  of  about  the  same  kind,  representing  horses  mounted  and  unmounted, 
Indian  men  and  women,  deer,  bears,  and  other  animals. 

One  striking  feature  is  the  great  age  of  some  of  these  petroglyphics.  In 
that  State  some  of  the  Indian  nations  buried  their  dead  in  the  ground,  and 
put  a  stone  over  the  grave  to  mark  the  spot  as  well  as  to  keep  wild  animals 
from  digging  up  the  remains.  If  the  Indians  were  able  to  write,  they  would 
no  doubt  mark  the  spot  with  hierolgyphics  cut  in  stone  in  some  way  that 
would  be  intelligible  to  those  who  came  after.  If  these  petrographs  were 
not  for  this  purpose  it  may  be  that  they  are  of  no  special  significance,  but 
were  rather  the  work  of  vain  Indians  who  desired  to  show  their  ability  as 
artists. 


INDIAN   BARK   HOUSE. 


TWENTY    YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS.  113 


CHAPTER  XII. 

THE  INDIAN  AS  A  FIGHTER— HIS  BRAVERY   AND   CONTEMPT  OF  DEATH— A 
CUNNING,  STEALTHY,  AND  TREACHEROUS  FOE. 

Born  Fighters — The  Indian's  Contempt  of  Death — His  Great  Courage — Fighting  and  Hunt- 
ing His  only  Occupations — Not  easily  Surprised  or  Ambushed — Indian  Method  of 
Preparing  for  Battle — Return  of  a  War  Party — Re-enacting  the  Warlike  Scene — 
Treatment  of  Captives — Prolonging  the  Torture — Effect  of  Firearms  on  the 
Primeval  Indian — How  the  Indian  first  secured  Firearms — Horse-stealing  consid- 
ered a  Virtue — Indian  Lack  of  Inventiveness — Articles  that  have  never  been  im- 
proved on — The  Snowshoe,  Moccasin,  Tepee,  and  Bow  and  Arrow — Great  Buoyancy 
of  their  Canoes. 

WHATEVER  may  be  said  of  Indian  ferocity,  whether  in  conflict  with  his 
own  race  or  with  the  white  man,  his  courage  cannot  be  disputed.  From  his 
first  contact  with  the  whites  until  his  recent  round-up  on  the  reservations,  he 
always  proved  himself  a  born  fighter. 

He  usually  hesitated  to  attack  until  he  was  sure  he  had  the  advantage; 
but  that  only  proved  that  he  was  shrewd  as  well  as  brave.  The  white  man 
had  the  best  of  modern  weapons,  while  the  Indian  for  the  most  part  had  to 
depend  upon  his  bow  and  arrow,  or  a  rusty  old  gun  or  pistol,  with  limited 
ammunition.  If  he  resorted  to  treachery  in  fighting,  and  was  wily  almost 
to  cowardice  during  battle,  he  was  only  making  up  for  his  disadvantages, 
and  could  not  reasonably  be  blamed  for  it.  When  fighting  with  other  In- 
dians, on  equal  terms  as  to  equipments  of  war.  he  evinced  the  greatest  cour- 
age and  showed  supreme  contempt  of  death.  Fighting  was  as  natural  to  the 
Indians  as  hunting.  They  were  fighting  among  themselves  when  the  white 
man  first  met  them;  they  had  traditions  of  strife  and  warfare  from  im- 
memorial periods;  and  kept  up  a  chronic  warfare  with  each  other,  as  well  as 
with  the  whites,  until  the  national  government  reduced  them  to  submission. 

When  fighting  among  themselves  they  had  rude  military  codes  and  regula- 
tions, held  war  councils,  and  planned  campaigns  or  raids,  after  true  Indian 
fashion. 

It  was  not  often  that  one  Indian  tribe  surprised  another,  for  the  Indian 
instinctively  feared  an  enemy  on  every  side,  and  was  on  the  alert.  Before 


114  TWENTY   YEARS  AMONG  OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 

going  on  the  warpath,  many  of  them  worked  themselves  into  diabolic  frenzy 
by  engaging  in  their  so-called  war  dance,  painting  their  faces  and  bodies, 
uttering  fierce  cries  and  war-whoops.  The  aged,  the  feeble,  and  the  young 
who  remained  behind,  cheered  them  on,  and  eagerly  awaited  their  return 
with  booty  or  captives. 

When  the  war  party  returned,  its  approach  was  first  announced  by  scouts, 
and  the  result  of  the  adventure  related.  If  the  expedition  had  met  with 
disaster,  the  names  of  the  dead  or  captured  were  made  known,  when  the 
women  indulged  in  wild  waitings  and  other  signs  of  grief.  Should  the  un- 
lucky party,  however,  bring  with  them  captives,  all  the  passion  and  fury  of 
the  tribe  was  sure  to  be  wreaked  on  them. 

Unless  thoroughly  crushed,  the  returning  party  did  not  admit  defeat,  but 
indulged  in  shouts  of  triumph,  brandishing  their  weapons  and  waving  the 
scalps  or  other  trophies  they  might  have  taken.  An  imitation  of  the  warlike 
scene  was  re-enacted,  and  the  exploits  of  the  braves  rehearsed  in  mimicry. 
If  successful,  the  captives  were  sometimes  spared  and  adopted  into  the  tribe. 

Captive  men  were  rarely  permitted  to  accompany  a  war  party  against  their 
own  people,  the  warriors  fearing  that  the  prisoner  might  escape  and  rejoin 
his  tribe;  besides  the  Indians  were  suspicious  of  every  one,  and  placed  con- 
fidence in  no  one  outside  of  their  own  people. 

When  condemned  to  torture  and  death,  the  sufferings  of  the  captives  were 
intensified  by  every  method  of  barbarity  the  tormentor  could  devise.  In 
ingenuity  of  cruelty,  and  in  the  exercise  of  it,  the  women  were  invariably 
the  most  fiendish.  If  the  victim  manifested  any  indication  of  weakness  or 
cowardice  he  was  treated  with  jeers  and  scorn,  and  his  sufferings  were  pro- 
longed and  multiplied.  If,  on  the  contrary,  he  bore  his  torture  with  indom- 
itable stoicism,  as  he  usually  did,  he  elicited  the  admiration  of  his  torment- 
ors, and  at  times  his  fortitude  was  rewarded  by  his  torturers  putting  an  end 
to  his  sufferings. 

When  the  Indian  first  encountered  the  white  man's  firearms  he  was 
stricken  with  superstitious  awe.  He  knew  not  what  to  make  of  the  artificial 
thunder  and  lightning.  As  civilization  advanced  to  the  West  he  gradually 
secured  modern  implements  of  war,  and  became  more  or  less  proficient  in 
their  use.  The  adventurer  and  trader  did  not  hesitate  to  supply  the  savage 
with  these  instruments  of  destruction,  although  they  might  be  turned  against 
those  who  supplied  them  at  any  moment. 

Next  to  taking  the  scalp  of  his  enemy,  the  highest  virtue  in  the  Indian's 
catalogue  was  success  in  horse-stealing.  When  the  merits  of  a  brave  were 
recounted  by  others,  adeptness  as  a  thief  was  considered  by  his  tribe  as 
almost  equivalent  to  exploits  in  battle.  Hence  there  was  for  the  Indian  a 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 


115 


double  incentive  in  horse-stealing — it  gained  for  him  admiration  and  wealth 
at  the  same  time.  The  more  horses  he  had  the  richer  he  was,  and  the  more 
influential  he  was  with  his  people. 

The  North  American  Indian  was  not  noted  for  his  inventiveness.  Like 
the  animals  to  which  he  so  closely  adapted  himself,  he  was  satisfied  with  his 
existence,  and  did  not  try  to  improve  his  condition,  or  to  render  life  more 
agreeable.  But  there  are  several  things  that  he  invented  which  all  the  in- 
genuity of  the  white  man  has  never  been  able  to  improve.  These  are  the 
canoe,  the  moccasin,  the  snowshoe,  the  tepee,  and  the  bow  and  arrow. 


BULL-BOAT   OF  THE  NORTHWEST. 


Each  of  these  is  simply  perfect  in  regard  to  the  use  for  which  it  was 
intended. 

The  Indians  roamed  over  the  entire  country  in  search  of  subsistence,  and 
utilized  the  water  highways  in  their  rovings  to  the  fullest  extent  possible. 
The  birch-bark  canoe  was  well  adapted  to  the  end  for  which  it  was  designed. 
It  was  made  sufficiently  strong  to  carry  themselves  and  their  belongings  over 
the  lakes  and  streams;  it  was  also  light  enough  to  be  transported  over  port, 
ages  from  one  waterway  to  another.  Over  portages  they  first  transported 
their  goods,  and  then  returned  for  the  boat.  The  birch-bark  canoe  was  gen- 
erally used  on  the  waters  of  the  North  and  Northwest.  In  the  far  western 
plains,  where  no  birch  trees  grew,  they  fashioned  boats  out  of  the  hides  of 
buffalo,  making  the  so-called  bull-boat.  This  was  shaped  by  stretching  the 
green  hides  over  a  wooden  frame. 

It  was  extremely  difficult  to  adapt  one's  self  to  those  frail  canoes  without 
overturning  them,  but  Indians  manipulated  them  with  consummate  skill. 
It  is,  however,  worthy  of  note  that  the  French  voyageurs  handled  bull-boats 


116 


TWENTY    YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 


and  canoes  with  more  facility,  and  adapted  them  to  a  greater  variety  of  uses 
than  the  Indian  had  ever  done.  The  material  of  which  the  Indian  canoe 
was  made  was  easily  procurable,  and  if  damaged  it  was  easy  to  repair. 
Some  of  the  bark  canoes  were  capable  of  carrying  many  tons  of  freight, 

besides  paddlers  and  passen- 
gers, and  were  used  by  all  the 
fur  companies,  traders,  hunters, 
and  pioneers  in  transporting 
their  stores. 

The  moccasin,  as  a  foot  cov- 
ering, was  as  admirably  adapted 
to  the  Indian  as  was  the  canoe. 
It  was  made  of  tanned  deer  skin, 
and  was  sewed  with  the  sinews 
of  animals,  the  hole  for  the 
sinew  being  made  with  an  awl 
of  bone  or  other  sharp  instru- 
ment. The  moccasin  kept  the 
foot  warm,  did  not  impede  per- 
spiration, was  elastic  and  soft, 
allowing  perfect  use  of  the  foot 
and  toes  in  climbing  rough 
places  or  treading  rugged  paths. 
It  was  easily  made  and  easily 
mended. 

The  snowshoe  was  a  necessity 
for  the  Indian  in  the  more 
northerly  regions,  enabling  him 
to  travel  in  winter  through  deep 
snows,  and  to  hunt  game. 
With  it  he  could  go  over  the 
deepest  snow  drifts  without 
sinking,  and  where  he  had  level 
footing  he  could  run  with  great 
speed.  The  snowshoe  is  to-day 
universally  used  in  cold  coun- 
tries, and  in  the  armies  of  north- 
SNOWSHOES  OF  THE  BLAOKFEET.  ern  Europe  is  B.  part  of  the  mili- 

tary  equipment.     It   is,    in    its 

make  and  in  its  use,  the  same  as  the  Indian  gave  it  to  us.     Neither  science 
nor  art  has  improved  on  it  in  the  least. 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 


117 


Of  the  tepee,  and  bow  and  arrow,  nothing  further  need  be  said  here,  as 
they  are  elsewhere  fully  described.  The  tepee  or  skin-covered  lodge  is  a 
thing  of  the  past.  The  Indian  has  passed  from  his  nomadic  condition  and 
no  longer  requires  this  kind  of  habitation.  Furthermore,  the  animals  upon 
which  he  depended  for  the  covering  of  this  movable  dwelling  have  become 
almost  extinct. 


LITTLE  KIOWA  GIRL,  WITH  DOLL. 


118  TWENTY    YEARS   AMONG  OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 


CHAPTER  XIII. 

THE  INDIAN'S  NATURAL  WEAPONS   AND   HOW  HE  USED  THEM— TEACHING 
YOUNG  BRAVES  INDIAN  WARFARE. 

Indian  Weapons  of  War  and  of  the  Chase — The  Indian  War  Club— The  Tomahawk — The 
•'  Scalping  Knife — The  Lance  and  Shield — The  Bow  and  Arrow — How  they  were  made 
— Dexterity  of  the  Indian  in  the  Use  of  the  Bow — His  Lack  of  Proficiency  in  the 
Use  of  Modern  Firearms — His  Limited  Use  of  Tools — Boys  Practicing  with  Bow  and 
Arrow — Securing  their  first  Firearms — The  Indian  not  a  Good  Rifle  Shot — Sham 
Battles— A  Realistic  and  Exciting  Exhibition — Their  Decorations  and  Equipment — 
How  the  Young  Brave  Acquired  a  Knowledge  of  War — Dexterity  in  Rescuing  their 
Wounded  during  Battle — His  thorough  Mastery  of  his  Horse. 

THE  oft-repeated  and  commonly  accepted  statement  that  the  wild  Indians 
of  this  country  used  a  stone  war  club  as  a  weapon  of  offense  or  defense  is 
largely  fictitious.  In  the  first  place,  it  is  unfitted  for  such  a  purpose.  The 
person  using  a  club  must  first  come  in  close  contact  with  his  enemy  before 
he  could  make  use  of  such  a  weapon.  Again,  the  stone  club  is  heavy  and 
unwieldy,  and  is  not  dangerous  except  when  the  enemy  is  lying  prostrate. 
Clubs  of  the  kind  referred  to  were  common  in  Indian  camps,  but  were 
usually  employed  as  mallets  in  driving  stakes  or  lodge  pins,  and  for  general 
camp  purposes.  It  is  true,  however,  that  after  a  battle  the  women  would 
sometimes  dispatch  the  wounded  and  mutilate  the  dead  on  the  battlefield  by 
smashing  their  skulls  with  these  clubs. 

Some  of  the  men  carried  a  peculiar-looking  club,  painted  in  gaudy  colors, 
the  handle  thickly  studded  with  brass-headed  nails.  On  one  side,  near  the 
top,  was  fastened  one  or  more  formidable  looking  blades  of  iron.  Other 
kinds  of  clubs  had  a  solid  wooden  head  at  the  end,  in  which  was  fastened  a 
long  iron  spike.  The  Indians  did  not,  to  my  knowledge,  use  these  clubs  in 
battle  with  white  men,  or  between  themselves.  They  were  carried  upon 
ceremonial  occasions  for  show.  The  Indian  loved  to  see  himself  portrayed 
with  this  ugly- looking,  but  useless  weapon,  conspicuously  displayed,  and 
nothing  would  tickle  his  vanity  more  than  to  have  his  picture  taken  with  his 
favorite  club  in  his  hand. 

With  the  advent  of  firearms  among  the  Indians,  the  tomahawk  also  ceased 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 


119 


to  be  an  important  war  weapon.  It  was  commonly  carried,  but  generally 
used  as  a  pipe,  the  back  or  head  being  hollow  and  used  for  a  bowl,  and  the 
handle,  which  had  a  hole  through  it,  was  used  for  a  stem.  The  blade  or  axe 
was  of  iron  or  steel;  this  they  procured  from  white  traders.  The  tomahawk 
has  passed  into  history  as  a 
bloody  weapon,  and  at  one 
time  might  have  been  en- 
titled to  its  reputation  as 
such,  but  of  late  years  it 
was  rarely  used.  If  by 
chance  an  Indian  met 
another  in  a  hand-to-hand 
combat  his  weapon  was  the 
knife.  Some  of  the  duels 
with  knives  were  of  the 
bloodiest  kind;  they  would 
stab  and  slash  each  other  so 
terribly  that  both  contes- 
tants died  locked  in  each 
other's  arms.  When  a  fight 
of  this  kind  occurred  it  was 
sure  to  end  fatally  for  one  or 
both.  I  once  saw  the  bodies 
of  two  Indians  who  died  in 
this  manner,  and  counted 
eight  stabs  and  twenty  one 
slashes  on  one  body,  and 
eight  stabs  and  fourteen 
slashes  on  the  other;  the 
bodies  were  lying  close  to 
each  other  just  as  they  had 
died. 

All  Indians,  both  men  and  women,  carried  a  knife  in  a  sheath  attached  to 
the  belt,  and  were  dexterous  in  its  use.  The  knife  was  their  inseparable 
companion,  and  was  used  for  slaughtering  animals,  scalping  enemies,  and 
for  general  purposes.  Knives  were  kept  as  sharp  as  possible,  the  handle 
being  often  elaborately  ornamented  in  true  Indian  style.  In  early  days  on 
the  plains  it  was  difficult  for  them  to  secure  a  sufficient  supply  of  knives, 
but  that  difficulty  ceased  after  white  traders  established  trading  posts 
throughout  the  Indian  country. 


WAR  CLUB  ORNAMENTED  WITH  BRASS-HEADED 

NAILS — BEAR  CLAW  DECORATION  ON  END 

OF  BUCKSKIN  SHIRT  SLEEVES — FACIAL 

PAINTING— MINNECONJOUX  SIOUX. 


120 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 


The  wild  Indian  was  also  armed  with  a  lance,  which  he  sometimes  used 
with  deadly  effect  in  battle  or  on  raiding  ex- 
peditions; many  of  the  nations  and  tribes  carried 
this  weapon  until  they  were  disarmed.  The-head  of 
the  lance  was  made  of  iron  or  steel  procured  from 
white  traders. 

The  old  tradition,  so  common  in  history  and 
fiction,  of  Indians  using  poisoned  arrows,  is  without 
foundation.  In  the  first  place,  I  am  at  loss  to  know 
where  they  could  procure  the  poison.  It  is  claimed, 
however,  by  some  that  they  used  the  venom  of  the 
rattlesnake  for  this  purpose.  Admitting  this  to  be  a 
fact  they  could  have  but  few  poisoned  arrows,  for 
the  owner  would  be  apt  to  be  the  first  to  suffer 
from  contact  with  them.  If  they  ever  did  use 
poisoned  arrows  it  must  have  been  of  rare  occur- 
rence. I  never  saw  or  heard  of  any,  in  my  long 
experience  among  the  Indians. 

The  bow   and  arrow  was   well    made,  and   was 
often  a  work  of  art.    The  shaft  of  the  arrow  varied 
in  length  among  different  tribes,  and  was  usually 
made    from    reeds,    or  carefully   selected   straight, 
slender  branches  of  the  red  willow.     The  lower  end 
was  feathered  along  the    sides  from  two   or  three 
inches  to  more  than  a  foot.     The  point  or  head  was 
ordinarily  made  of  hoop  iron,  and  was  fastened  to 
the  shaft  by  sinews.     Some  of  these  were  barbed  on 
both  sides  like  a  fish-hook.     Once  a  barbed  arrow 
entered  the  body  of  a  human  being  it  was  neces- 
sary to  push  it  entirely  through,  or  cut   it   out,   in 
order  to  remove  it,  for  should  an  attempt  be  made 
to  draw  it  out  the  way  it  went  in,  the  barbs  would 
catch  in  the  flesh,  and  pull  off  of  the  staff.     Should 
an  arrow  remain  in  the  flesh  for  a  length  of  time 
the  sinew  used  to  fasten  the  head  to  the  shaft  became 
soft,  and  an  effort  made  to  withdraw  the  arrow  at 
once  disengaged  the  shaft  and  left  the  arrowhead  in 
the  wound. 

The  bow  was  usually  made  of  hickory,   willow, 
mesquit,   or  Qsage  orange  wood.     Occasionally  bows  were  reinforced   or 


LANCE  AND  BELT — SIOUX. 
DOG  SOLDIER  INSIGNIA. 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR    HOSTILE   INDIANS.  121 

backed  with  the  sinew  of  the  elk  or  buffalo,  which  made  them  very  strong 
and  elastic.  A  person  not  accustomed  to  a  bow  of  this  kind  might  scarcely 
spring  it  two  inches,  while  an  Indian  would  spring  it  a  foot  or  more,  driv- 
ing the  arrow  with  tremendous  velocity.  With  a  strong  bow  he  would 
drive  the  arrow  half  its  length  into  the  body  of  a  buffalo.  The  bowstring 
was  of  twisted  sinews  and  was  very  strong,  lasting  a  long  time.  It  would 
cut  like  a  knife  when  used  by  unskilled  hands.  The  Indian  protected  his 
arm  at  the  wrist  by  a  piece  of  rawhide,  to  prevent  the  relaxed  bowstring 
from  cutting  and  disabling  him. 

A  bow  and  arrow  outfit  was  usually  carried  in  a  bow  case  and  quiver, 
attached  to  each  other,  made  of  skin,  generally  of  the  mountain  lion,  otter, 
or  buffalo,  and  was  slung  over  the  Indian's  back. 

Indian  boys  would  frequently  stand  in  line  when  practicing  with  the  bow, 
each  with  his  hand  full  of  arrows,  firing  them  with  such  rapidity  that  the  air 
would  be  filled  with  them.  After  they  were  through  firing  each  would  run 
and  select  his  own  arrows  where  they  had  fallen.  This  seems  incredible,  as 
all  the  arrows  looked  alike,  yet  they  rarely  made  a  mistake. 

At  first  the  only  firearms  they  had  were  the  old-fashioned,  flint-lock, 
muzzle-loading  pistols  and  muskets.  Later  on,  however,  they  managed  to 
obtain  the  best  modern  arms,  but  they  still  clung  to  their  natural  weapon, 
the  bow  and  arrow.  With  the  advance  of  civilization  the  Indians  experi- 
enced less  difficulty  in  securing  modern  firearms  and  ammunition. 

It  is  a  notable  fact  that  Indians  did  not  acquire  proficiency  in  the  use  of 
firearms.  Even  after  the  red  man  was  employed  in  the  United  States  mili- 
tary service,  where  he  had  every  facility  for  improvement,  he  did  not  com- 
pare favorably  with  the  white  man  in  handling  firearms.  The  common  idea 
gained  from  Cooper's  "Leather  Stocking  Tales,"  and  more  modern  litera- 
ture, that  all  Indian  warriors  were  superior  marksmen,  is  a  romantic  delu- 
sion. The  best  that  can  be  said  of  them  is  that  they  made  progress  in  the 
use  of  modern  arms.  They  were  not  experts  with  the  rifle,  and  rarely,  if 
ever,  practiced  target  shooting — which  is  absolutely  necessary  to  make  a  fine 
marksman — principally  for  the  reason  that  such  practice  meant  a  waste  of 
ammunition;  as  it  was  difficult  for  them  to  obtain  this  they  preferred  to  re- 
serve it  for  fighting  or  procuring  food.  Not  until  about  1863  or  1864,  when 
some  benevolent  people  of  the  East  took  pity  on  these  poor  red  men,  did  they 
obtain  modern  firearms,  such  as  Winchester  repeating  rifles,  Spencer  car- 
bines, and  other  magazine  pieces.  As  it  was  necessary  to  have  metallic 
cartridges  for  the  use  of  these  arms,  they  were  particularly  careful  not  to 
waste  this  kind  of  ammunition.  Besides,  the  Indian  did  not  acquire  pro- 
ficiency in  the  use  of  tools,  nor  did  he  have  them,  so  when  his  modern  firearms 


122  TWENTY   YEARS  AMONG  OUR  HOSTILE   INDIANS. 

got  out  of  order  he  was  unable  to  repair  them ;  therefore  they  remained  use- 
less weapons.  Efforts  were  made  to  teach  Indians  in  the  employ  of  the 
government  the  principles  of  marksmanship,  but  according  to  a  recent  de- 
partment report  they  did  not  reach  much  more  than  one-third  of  the  average 
of  the  white  man  either  in  individual  or  collective  firing  with  the  rifle.  At 
pistol  firing  they  were  somewhat  better  in  mounted  practice,  showing  some 
improvement  over  their  degree  of  skill  with  the  rifle.  In  spite  of  all  efforts 
of  the  government  the  record  made  by  them  was  far  below  that  made  by  the 
troops. 

Notwithstanding  the  Indian's  constant  use  of  his  weapons  and  the  fact 
that  from  earliest  childhood  he  had  but  one  ambition,  proficiency  in  war, 
they  did  not  organize  themselves  into  bodies  for  drill  with  arms,  or  in  manoeu- 
vring or  instruction  in  the  art  of  war.  When  they  attempted  a  drill  of 
any  kind  a  number  of  them  would  come  together  and  go  through  a  sham 
battle.  Sometimes  they  would  choose  a  chief  or  leader,  when  going  through 
an  imaginary  fight.  Sham  fights  were  not  for  instruction  but  for  amuse- 
ment. Each  member  of  the  tribe  was  at  liberty  to  join  in  the  fun  and  retire 
when  he  pleased. 

When  going  through  sham  manoeuvres  they  were  often  fantastically 
dressed  in  war  bonnets  and  feathers,  with  their  bodies  and  faces  painted 
in  the  most  hideous  style.  They  were  naked,  except  the  breech  cloth  and 
moccasins,  as  though  entering  a  real  battle.  They  would  mount  their 
best  war  horses,  which  had  their  bodies  painted,  and  were  decorated  with 
feathers  in  the  tails,  manes,  and  foretops.  Their  shields  on  such  occasions 
were  indispensable.  Everything  being  in  readiness,  the  Indians  formed 
themselves  in  line  on  the  open  ground  or  field,  facing  toward  an  imaginary 
foe.  Suddenly  they  would  make  a  charge  in  the  direction  of  the  party  they 
were  supposed  to  attack.  After  the  charge  had  been  made  every  warrior 
would  act  independently,  throwing  himself  from  one  side  of  his  horse  to  the 
other,  charging  and  counter-charging,  circling  as  if  surrounding  the  enemy, 
throwing  his  lance,  firing  his  arrows,  uttering  war  cries  and  yells,  and  mak- 
ing all  sorts  of  movements  as  if  engaged  in  the  fiercest  battles. 

The  shield  was  fastened  about  the  neck  and  over  the  shoulder  with  a 
buckskin  thong,  would  by  dexterous  movements  of  the  body,  and  without 
the  use  of  the  hanJs  be  constantly  moved  from  one  side  to  the  other,  to  the 
back  and  front,  and  placed  in  every  position  possible  to  prevent  the  warrior 
being  pierced  by  the  weapons  of  the  opposing  party.  They  presented  a  pic- 
turesque appearance  when  moving  and  circling  rapidly  with  their  gayly 
colored  war  bonnets  and  feathers,  especially  if  scalps  dangled  from  the 
shields,  which  was  often  the  case. 


TWENTY   YEARS  AMONG  OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS.  123 

During  sham  battles  the  yells  of  the  flying  warriors  were  deafening. 
These  imaginary  conflicts  usually  lasted  hut  a  short  time,  for  it  was  hard 
work;  to  this,  the  red  man  was  constitutionally  opposed. 

The  Indian  was  so  independent  in  his  nature  and  so  impatient  of  restraint, 
that  it  prevented  his  becoming  a  part  of  an  organization  for  the  purpose  of 
instruction  or  drill.  The  young  brave  acquired  much  knowledge  of  war 
from  listening  to  the  old  warriors  as  they  told  of  their  many  battles,  and  the 
glorious  part  they  had  acted  in  them.  After  hearing  these  stories  the  young 
man  at  the  first  opportunity  mounted  one  of  the  best  horses  belonging  to 
himself  or  father,  and  went  through  an  imaginary  fight  by  himself.  In  this 
way  he  became  a  good  horseman,  as  well  as  versed  in  the  movements  of 
Indian  warfare. 

One  thing  all  Indian  warriors  practiced  and  became  proficient  in,  was  the 
manner  of  seizing  and  carrying  off  a  wounded  comrade  from  the  field  of 
battle  to  a  place  of  safety.  Owing  to  this  practice  the  troops  rarely  captured 
a  wounded  Indian.  They  also  practiced  how  to  disperse  in  case  of  defeat; 
this  to  them  was  one  of  their  important  manoeuvres  in  escaping  from  the 
enemy.  They  scattered  in  ever}T  direction,  in  ones,  twos,  and  threes,  to 
prevent  pursuit.  After  going  a  short  distance  they  returned  and  repeated 
the  same  manoeuvre,  each  Indian  selecting  a  different  comrade  and  going 
in  a  different  direction. 

When  mounted  on  a  vicious  or  untrained  war  horse,  it  is  surprising  with 
what  skill  a  warrior  managed  his  mount,  with  nothing  on  the  animal  but  a 
lariat  rope  around  the  lower  jaw.  He  was  perfect  master  of  his  horse, 
twisting  and  turning  him  within  his  own  length,  and  in  every  direction 
without  apparent  injury  to  the  animal. 

When  in  actual  battle  these  movements  were  rarely  ever  adhered  to,  but 
they  served  to  teach  the  young  warrior  how  to  conduct  himself  during  a  real 
engagement,  and  made  him  an  expert  in  handling  his  mount  and  weapons. 

Indians  did  not  use  spurs.  It  would  have  been  difficult  to  obtain  them  ; 
moreover,  when  riding  they  thumped  the  animals  constantly  with  their 
heels,  and  spurs  would  have  cut  through  their  sides  in  a  short  time. 

All  Indians  mounted  and  dismounted  from  the  right,  or  off  side  with  or 
•without  a  saddle.  When  in  battle  they  mounted  from  either  side,  when 
necessary.  When  mounted  they  were  expert  with  the  lasso,  throwing  it  with 
great  precision,  catching  an  animal  around  the  leg,  neck  or  almost  any  part 
aimed  at.  This  they  could  do  when  going  at  any  speed.  In  throwing  the 
lasso,  men,  women,  and  children  were  all  experts. 


TWENTY    YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 


CHAPTER  XIV. 

AN    INDIAN    DOG    FEAST  —  FINGEES    VERSUS    FORKS— AN    INDIAN    DINNER 
PARTY— PERSONAL  EXPERIENCES. 

Why  the  Indians  were  Nomadic— A  Dog  Feast — Cooked  in  its  Skin  with  the  Hair  on — 
How  the  Favorite  Dish  Tastes— Its  Peculiar  Flavor— Giving  a  Dinner  to  a  Famous 
Chief— Astonished  Indians— Eating  all  Night — Indians  with  "Good  Hearts" — A 
Perfect  Gorge — Eating  with  their  Fingers — Refusing  to  use  Knives  and  Forks — A 
Delicate  Meal— Speech  of  a  Great  Chief—"  Wacpominie  "—What  it  consisted  of— 
Old-Man- Afraid-of -His -Horses — An  Embarrassment  of  Riches  —  Some  Valuable 
Presents — Disagreeable  Pests— Manner  of  Ridding  Skins  of  Vermin — A  Pertinent 
Conversation  with  a  Chief  and  his  Significant  Reply — The  Grossest  Insult  known  to 
the  Sioux. 

IN  their  wild  state  the  savages  were  kept  moving  constantly  from  one 
place  to  another,  for  the  reason  that  when  the  grass  was  consumed  in  and 
about  their  camps,  they  went  elsewhere, — not  to  get  away  from  the  filth 
which  had  accumulated  about  them,  but  to  supply  forage  for  their  animals 
and  food  for  themselves. 

Besides,  the  wild  Indian  was  naturally  of  a  roving  disposition ;  he  was  not 
satisfied  to  remain  long  in  one  place,  no  matter  how  comfortable  it  might  be. 
He  had  an  insatiable  desire  for  new  scenes,  to  visit  old  and  new  acquaint- 
ances. Often  he  changed  location  to  please  one  of  his  daughters,  whose 
heart  was  attracted  to  another  portion  of  the  country,  where  she  hoped  to 
see  some  young  man  she  fancied ;  again  he  moved  for  reasons  known  only  to 
himself.  I  have  seen  them  locate  in  beautiful  places,  that  afforded  protec- 
tion from  the  rigors  of  the  winter.  In  a  few  weeks  the  spot  was  deserted 
and  they  were  occupying  a  barren,  inhospitable  place.  The  weather  had  nc 
terrors  for  the  red  man  when  he  desired  a  change  of  locality ;  they  were  con- 
stantly on  the  move  during  all  seasons  of  the  year. 

On  notable  occasions  they  held  a  feast.  Of  these  the  greatest  of  all  was  a 
dog  feast.  Their  dogs — every  Indian  village  and  camp  was  overrun  with 
them — were  a  species  more  or  less  inbred  with  the  coyote  and  gray  wolf. 
For  a  feast  of  this  kind  some  of  the  fattest  dogs  were  killed.  The  Indians 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS.  125 

would  sit  all  night  eating  the  meat  of  a  dog  boiled  in  a  pot,  bones  and  all, 
cooked  without  salt,  and  eaten  without  accompaniments  of  any  kind.  The 
flesh  of  a  dog,  when  boiled  Indian  style,  has  its  own  peculiar  flavor.  It  is 
stringy  and  tough,  though  the  fat  of  the  animal  when  boiled  is  passably 
palatable.  I  have  been  to  many  of  these  feasts,  and  must  confess  that  I  do 
not  relish  dog  meat. 

A  great  feast  was  once  held  near  Fort  Laramie,  pending  negotiations 
between  Colonel  Wm.  E.  Maynadier  and  Red  Cloud,  at  which  many  Indians 
were  present,  probably  ten  thousand,  all  Sioux.  Old-Man- Afraid-cf-his- 
Horses  was  not  present  at  the  treaty,  but  arrived  a  few  days  afterwards, 
when  I  had  a  talk  with  him.  This  was  after  the  massacre  of  August,  1863. 
As  he  called  me  his  son,  I  gave  him  a  banquet  consisting  of  hard  bread  (a 
kind  of  cracker  supplied  by  the  government  to  the  troops),  bacon,  salt  pork, 
dried  beans,  peas,  rice,  hominy,  sugar  and  coffee. 

There  were  about  two  hundred  and  fifty  Indians  present  at  this  feast,  in- 
cluding Old-Man-Afraid-of-his-Horses,  and  other  chiefs  less  notable.  The 
cooking  was  done  by  the  troops  in  kettles  and  pans  belonging  to  the  garri- 
son, and  was  served  by  the  soldiers  on  tin  plates.  Our  Sioux  guests  sat  in  a 
large  circle  after  their  own  fashion,  and  ate  with  their  fingers,  refusing  to 
use  the  knives  and  forks  with  which  we  supplied  them.  This  was  not  a 
meal,  but  as  some  of  the  troops  aptly  remarked,  a  perfect  gorge.  The 
Indians  sat  eating  the  entire  night;  when  morning  came  there  was  not  a 
vestige  of  what  I  had  supposed  was  an  abundant  supply,  besides  something 
for  each  one  to  take  to  his  lodge  for  his  family.  The  amount  of  very  much 
sweetened  coffee  they  consumed  was  astounding.  This  feast  would  not  com- 
mend itself  to  the  ordinary  white  man  on  account  of  the  tempting  dishes  pro- 
vided, but  as  few,  if  any,  of  these  Indians  had  ever  tasted  such  a  variety  of 
food,  they  made  many  grunts  and  gesticulations  testifying  to  their  high  ap- 
preciation of  such  a  delicate  repast.  They  licked  their  fingers  and  looked  at 
each  other  in  astonishment,  their  eyes  following  the  men  serving  the  food  as 
if  saying  to  them,  "Give  me  some  more." 

After  the  feast  was  over  and  the  Indians  had  "good  hearts"  for  the  time 
being,  on  account  of  the  fullness  of  their  stomachs,  Old-Man-Afraid-of-his- 
Horses  arose  and  made  a  speech,  saying  in  substance,  "For  this  feast  and 
for  all  that  we  have  received  at  the  hands  of  our  friend  Possuscopie"  (Roman 
Nose,  for  that  was  the  name  these  people  called  me)  "we  will  pour  out  the 
goodness  of  our  hearts. "  Many  of  the  Indians  who  partook  of  the  feast 
made  me  presents  afterwards,  mainly  consisting  of  buffalo  robes,  some  of 
which  were  decorated  in  the  most  gorgeous  style  of  aboriginal  art.  I  also 
received  some  tanned  deer  and  antelope  skins,  and  other  articles  of  small 


126  TWENTY    YEARS  AMONG  OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 

value.  I  must  have  received  that  day,  in  all,  fully  sixty  or  seventy  skins. 
Many  of  them  were  handsomely  decorated  with  porcupine  quills,  and  were 
as  soft  and  pliable  as  a  piece  of  the  finest  cloth.  The  labor  of  tanning  them 
on  the  fleshy  side  required  great  skill.  In  preparing  them  the  roots  of  the 
hair  were  not  injured ;  otherwise  the  hair  and  fur  would  constantly  shed, 
which  would  diminish  the  value  of  the  skin  and  annoy  the  wearer.  Among 
these  presents  were  a  number  of  beaver  skins,  which  were  not  only  of  intrin- 
sic value  but  were  rendered  more  so  by  the  way  the  pelts  had  been  prepared. 
These  were  tannea  with  the  brains  of  the  animal  and  had  a  pleasant  smell. 
I  had  some  of  the  beaver  skins  made  into  a  robe  that  was  much  admired, 
and  which  often  served  to  cover  me  while  lying  on  the  ground  exposed  to 
the  rain  or  snow. 

I  returned  some  of  the  presents  to  the  donors.  It  may  be  asked  why  I  did 
so.  In  the  first  place  it  required  a  long  time  for  Indians  to  make  such  ac- 
cumulations; secondly,  I  could  not  use  them  all;  and  lastly,  and  the  most 
important  reason  was,  they  were  filled  with  vermin. 

The  manner  of  ridding  buffalo  robes  of  vermin  was  to  lay  the  robes  on  the 
ground  upon  or  near  the  hills  of  the  large  black  ants  which  were  numerous 
in  that  country,  when  the  ants  would  seize  the  vermin  and  eat  them.  It 
took  many  days  to  rid  a  hide  of  the  pests,  as  each  hair  had  numerous  nits  or 
eggs  upon  it.  These  had  to  hatch  out  (which  took  some  time)  and  be 
destroyed  by  the  ants  before  the  robe  was  entirely  freed  from  the  vermin. 

On  this  occasion,  there  were  present  Red  Cloud,  Spotted  Tail,  Old  Smoke, 
The  Trunk,  Dull  Knife,  Lone  Dog,  Ribs,  Old-Man-Afraid-of-his-Horses, 
and  many  other  Sioux  notables.  I  asked  Old-Man-Afraid-of-his-Horses  to 
answer  one  question,  insisting  that  he  should  do  so  frankly.  Prefixing  my 
question  by  saying,  "You  call  me  your  sou.  What  would  you  have  done  to 
me,  had  you  met  me  in  a  defenseless  position  during  the  time  of  the  massa- 
cre?" He  hung  his  head  for  a  moment  as  if  in  deep  thought,  and  without 
raising  his  eyes  or  looking  at  me,  said,  "My  son,  I  should  have  regretted 
meeting  you.  I  would  not  have  harmed  you,  myself,  but  I  could  not  have 
been  responsible  for  the  acts  of  my  young  men."  My  reply  was,  "I  under- 
stand fully  what  you  mean ;  you  would  not  have  killed  me  yourself,  but 
some  of  your  young  men  would  have  had  that  pleasure."  To  this  he  made 
no  answer. 

Another  instance  illustrative  of  Indian  character  occurred  at  Fort  Lar- 
amie.  S.  E.  Ward,  who  had  been  an  old  trapper  and  mountaineer,  and 
knew  Indian  character  well,  was  the  sutler  or  post  trader.  He  was  a  man  of 
keen  perception  and  spoke  the  Sioux  language  well.  On  one  occasion,  when 
some  Minneconjou  Sioux  were  on  a  trading  visit  at  this  fort  they  met  Ward, 


TWENTY   YEARS  AMONG  OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS.  127 

who  was  an  old  acquaintance.  After  a  pow-wow  with  them,  he  offered  to 
give  to  some  army  officers  present  an  illustration  of  Indian  character.  A 
short  time  before  this  one  of  the  Indians  had  said  to  him,  "You  are  rich, 
and  I  am  poor.  1  want  you  to  make  my  heart  glad  by  giving  me  sgme 
presents."  Ward  replied,  "You  may  go  into  the  warehouses  and  select 
anything  you  want,  but  when  you  have  made  your  selection,  you  cannot 
return  to  the  warehouse  again,  for  I  will  give  you  nothing  more,  no  matter 
how  small."  The  Indian  entered  the  store  and  selected  articles  which 
amounted  to  a  considerable  sum.  Returning  to  Ward  he  said,  "My  heart 
is  full,  I  have  everything  I  want,"  and  departed.  After  a  short  time  he 
returned,  saying  that  he  had  forgotten  to  take  some  gun  flints.  The  value  of 
the  flints  would  not  have  amounted  to  ten  cents.  He  asked  Ward  to  supply 
them.  Ward  reminded  him  of  his  former  proposition,  saying  that  he  could 
have  nothing  more.  The  Indian  turned  on  his  heel,  used  a  vile  name,  and 
then  offered  the  greatest  insult  known  in  the  Indian  sign  language,  which 
was  the  closing  of  the  hand  tightly,  with  the  nails  of  the  fingers  downward, 
thrusting  it  in  Ward's  face,  then  suddenly  opening  the  hand.  With  a  sneer 
and  look  of  contempt  he  departed.  "This,"  said  Mr.  Ward,  "is  an  illustra- 
tion of  one  phase  of  Indian  character.  I  have  read  and  heard  of  Indian 
gratitude,  but  I  have  never  seen  an  Indian  who  possessed  that  virtue." 


128 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG  OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 


CHAPTER    XV. 

BURIAL  OF  THE  DEAD— STRANGE  FUNERAL  RITES  AND  CEREMONIES— THE 
INDIAN'S  IDEA  OF  THE  FUTURE  STATE— LIFE  IN  THE  SPIRIT  LAND. 

Funeral  Ceremonies — Burial  of  a  Chief— Last  Rites — Final  Resting-Place  of  their  Impor- 
tant Personages — Buried  in  a  Sitting  Posture — Scaffolds  on  which  the  Dead  were 
placed — How  they  were  thrown  down  by  Buffalo — Taken  by  the  Whites  for  Fuel 
— Killing  Animals  at  the  Fimeral — Women  and  Female  Children  buried  in  various 
ways — Dead  Bodies  eaten  by  Carnivorous  Animals  and  Birds  of  Prey — Intolerable 
Stench  at  an  Indian  Burial-Place — Journey  of  the  Soul  to  the  Spirit  Land — The 
Indian's  Inability  to  Compute  Time — Feeding  the  Soul  during  its  Journey — Belief 
that  the  Spirit  left  the  Body  through  the  Mouth — Why  Indians  Mutilated  the  Slain 
Bodies  of  Enemies — Execution  of  Big  Foot,  Black  Crow,  and  others  by  hanging  in 
Chains — Death  in  its  most  Dreaded  Form. 

THE  burial  ceremony  among  Indian  nations  varied.     Among  the  majority 

of  them  the  death  and  burial 
of  one  of  their  chiefs  was  at- 
tended with  great  ceremony. 
Large  numbers  of  warriors 
would  assemble  to  attend  the 
last  rites.  The  body  of  the 
dead  chief  was  always  attired 
in  the  best  raiment  he  pos- 
sessed during  life.  His  war 
equipments,  bow  and  arrow, 
lance,  shield,  saddle  and  horse 
equipments,  blankets,  buffalo 
robes,  and  other  personal  be- 
longings were  left  with  the 
body  when  placed  in  its  final 
resting-place. 

The  body  of  one  of  these 
distinguished  personages  was 
sometimes  deposited  in  a  tree 


SCAFFOLD  GRAVES  ON  THE  PLAINS — SIOUX 
RIVER. 


PLATTE 


particularly  adapted  to  receive 
the     remains.       Others    were 
placed  on  a  platform,  six  to  eight  feet  in  width,  and  ten  to  twelve  feet  in 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS.  129 

length,  resting  on  upright  poles  set  in  the  ground,  and  from  ten  to  fifteen 
feet  in  height.  On  these  platforms  were  frequently  placed  the  bodies  of 
several  important  chiefs.  Scaffold  graves  were  usually  set  on  the  summit 
of  a  hill  or  in  a  valley,  selected  because  it  was  a  favorite  place  of  the  de- 
ceased during  life.  On  top  of  the  platform  was  laid  one  or  more  bodies, 
over  which  buffalo  robes,  a  lodge  cover,  or  skins  of  different  kinds,  were 
tightly  drawn,  and  securely  fastened  by  thongs  to  prevent  them  falling  to 
the  ground.  In  this  manner  the  corpses  were  left  until  they  rotted  and  fell. 
The  bodies  of  common  warriors  were  frequently  disposed  of  in  the  same 
manner,  usually  being  dressed  in  the  best  clothing  they  possessed  during 
life.  Some  of  them  were  placed  in  a  sitting  posture,  and  presented  a  pecu- 
liar appearance;  others  were  left  lying  on  their  backs,  all  being  covered  to 
prevent  birds  of  prey  from  eating  the  flesh. 

On  the  plains,  the  scaffolds  on  which  the  bodies  of  the  dead  were  left  did 
not  remain  standing  for  a  great  length  of  time  unless  carefully  watched. 
The  buffalos,  when  roaming  over  the  prairie,  their  hair  filled  with  buffalo 
gnats,  which  ate  great  sores  into  their  tough  hides,  would,  in  trying  to  rid 
themselves  of  their  tormentors,  rub  against  the  poles  and  throw  them  down. 
If  the  buffalo  did  not  do  so,  the  oxen  and  domestic  cattle  belonging  to 
freighters  crossing  the  plains,  when  turned  loose  to  graze  near  these  places, 
would  rub  against  the  scaffolds  with  the  same  result. 

When  the  platforms  were  erected  near  the  Overland  road,  the  numerous 
emigrants,  in  crossing  the  plains,  were  usually  vandals  enough  to  cut  them 
down  for  fuel  for  cooking  purposes;  consequently  this  was  not  so  secure  a 
method  of  disposing  of  the  bodies  as  placing  them  in  trees.  The  Indians, 
however,  had  an  aversion  to  placing  their  dead  in  trees  where  members  of 
the  tribe  were  likely  to  make  their  camp,  as  the  stench  from  the  decomposing 
bodies  remained  for  a  long  time;  and  as  horses,  mules  and  dogs  belong- 
ing to  the  deceased  were  frequently  killed  and  left  at  the  funeral  spot,  the 
stench  from  the  decomposing  remains  of  warriors  and  animals  was  intoler- 
able, especially  when  the  sun  came  out  very  hot  after  a  rain  storm. 

I  recall  the  illness  and  burial  of  one  of  Spotted  Tail's  daughters.  A  very 
noted  Indian  was  Spotted  Tail.  He  fought  the  whites  only  -when  he  could 
be  benefited  by  increasing  his  number  of  horses,  mules,  and  stores  by  pillage. 
He  had  his  headquarters  and  that  of  his  tribe  in  the  neighborhood  of  Raw 
Hide  Peak.  When  one  of  his  daughters,  to  whom  he  was  much  attached, 
was  taken  seriously  ill,  he  immediately  repaired  to  Fort  Laramie  and  asked 
assistance  of  one  of  the  army  surgeons.  His  daughter  was  kindly  treated  by 
the  surgeon,  but  finally  died,  and  was  given  the  usual  Indian  funeral  about 
twenty-five  or  thirty  miles  from  that  place.  Her  body  was  placed  on  a 


SPOTTED    TAIL    AND   WIFE   NUMBER   TWO— THE   NOTED   CHIEF   OF  THE   OGALALA   SIOUX. 
Twenty  Years  Among  Our  Hostile  Indians.  Page  130 


TWENTY   YEARS  AMONG  OUR  HOSTILE   INDIANS.  131 

scaffold  of  poles  set  up  after  Indian  fashion.  Afterwards  her  remains  were 
interred  in  the  hills  just  outside  the  fort.  I  was  present  at  this  burial;  and 
was  particularly  interested  in  the  prayers  said  by  each  one  of  the  friends  of 
the  family  who  spoke.  Charles  E.  Guerreu,  who  was  the  best  interpreter 
of  the  Sioux  language  that  I  ever  knew,  stood  near  me  and  repeated  the 
prayer  that  each  one  made.  The  body  was  interred  in  the  early  evening. 
One  of  the  Indians  in  his  prayer  said  :  "We  bury  your  body  as  the  sun  goes 
down,  and  as  the  sun  rises  in  the  morning,  so  your  spirit  will  go  to  our 
Great  Creator  with  the  rising  of  the  sun,  which  will  take  you  to  the  spirit 
land,  and  there  keep  you  until  all  your  family  and  friends  shall  join  yon. 
You  will  be  in  life  again  with  them,  and  live  for  a  long  time  without  want 
or  care."  Other  prayers  were  equally  expressive,  and  all  of  the  same  im- 
port. The  death  of  this  young  girl,  and  the  kindness  of  the  whites  at  the 
fort  in  caring  for  her  during  her  illness,  seemed  to  soften  Spotted  Tail's  sav- 
age nature.  For  a  long  time  he  was  quite  friendly,  and  made  almost  weekly 
visits  to  the  grave  of  his  daughter,  after  which  he  would  visit  the  fort, 
where  he  was  kindly  treated. 

The  bodies  of  women  and  female  children  were  frequently  buried  in  caves, 
or  in  ravines  or  holes;  as  the  Indians  had  no  tools  for  digging  the  ground, 
the  corpses  were  covered  only  with  a  little  dirt,  over  which  grass,  leaves  or 
branches  were  usually  thrown.  Bodies  buried  in  this  manner  did  not  remain 
long  undisturbed.  Wolves  and  other  carnivorous  beasts  in  search  of  food 
would  eat  the  flesh  entirely  from  the  bones  in  from  one  to  two  nights,  and 
drag  the  remnants  far  away  from  the  place  where  the  corpses  were  left. 

At  nearly  all  funerals  of  warriors,  and  sometimes  of  their  favorite  sons,  a 
sufficient  amount  of  food  was  placed  near  the  deceased  to  supply  them  during 
the  journey  to  the  new  home.  No  Indians  I  have  ever  conversed  with  could 
tell  me  how  long  it  took  the  disembodied  spirit  to  make  the  journey  to  their 
imaginary  heaven.  The  Sioux  believed  that  the  soul  arrived  at  the  spirit 
land  at  the  adult  age,  ready  and  equipped  for  all  the  pleasures  incident  to 
adult  life,  and  that  their  animals  arrived  with  them  in  good  condition. 
The  Indians  had  no  way  of  computing  time;  it  was  therefore  exceedingly 
difficult  for  them  to  explain  how  long  a  time  was  required  to  make  this  jour- 
ney, nor  could  they  explain  how  it  was  made.  When  it  is  considered  that 
the  most  intelligent  of  them  did  not  attempt  to  account  for  the  change  from 
day  to  night,  or  why  the  seasons  varied,  it  can  readily  be  understood  how 
difficult  it  was  for  them  to  explain  anything  about  the  time  required  for  the 
journey  of  the  soul  to  its  future  home. 

I  once  had  a  talk  with  Old-Man-Afraid-of-his-Horses  in  relation  to  the 
soul  from  the  time  of  death  to  its  arrival  in  the  spirit  land,  and  asked  him 


132 

if  he  believed  that  the  soul  would  have  in  its  new  home  the  articles  which 
were  buried  with  the  body  here,  and  if,  during  its  journey,  the  road  wo  did 
be  a  pleasant  and  safe  one,  or  one  in  which  all  sorts  of  wild  beasts  and  other 


TREE   GRAVE — BRULE   SIOUX — REPUBLICAN   RIVER. 

dangers  or  obstacles  would  be  encountered.  1  asked  him  if  the  soul  made 
this  journey  alone,  and  whether  it  traveled  during  the  light  of  day  or  the 
darkness  of  night;  also  to  explain  the  flight  of  the  soul  from  one  point  to 
another.  He  said  he  could  not  explain  anything  about  it,  but  he  knew  well 
enough  that  the  articles  that  were  buried  with  the  remains  would  not  be  with 
the  person  in  his  new  home;  that  such  a  person  would  know  how  to  make 
exact  reproductions  of  what  was  buried  with  the  body  here,  and  that  the 
souls  of  horses  and  dogs  killed  at  the  funeral  would  accompany  the  soul  of 
the  deceased,  and  be  the  souls  of  those  animals  in  the  happy  land.  I  asked, 
if  that  was  true,  why  they  placed  meats  on  the  scaffold  for  the  journey  of 
the  spirit.  He  replied  that  it  was  necessary  for  the  soul  to  have  something 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS.  133 

to  subsist  upon  during  its  journey,  be  it  long  or  shcrt.  I  then  inquired 
where  he  got  all  these  theories.  He  said,  with  some  warmth,  that  they  were 
not  theories,  but  facts;  that  it  was  necessary  for  everything  that  lived  to 
have  something  to  feed  upon,  and,  as  the  soul  was  alive,  it  was  necessary 
that  it  should  be  fed  in  passing  from  one  stage  to  another. 

I  then  said  to  him :  Suppose  the  soul  had  left  the  body  for  several  days, 
during  which  time  it  had  traveled  a  long  distance,  how  could  it  feed  upon 
the  food  which  was  left  upon  the  scaffold  and  which  still  remained  there? 
He  replied  that  the  soul  was  a  spirit,  and  that  it  extracted  the  spirit  food 
from  the  meat,  which  accompanied  the  soul  on  its  journey.  I  then  asked 
him  how  he  arrived  at  such  conclusions.  He  said  he  did  not  reach  them  at 
all;  that  this  belief  had  been  handed  down  to  him  by  his  forefathers,  that 
he  believed  they  knew,  and  he  did  not  trouble  himself  to  learn  anything  fur- 
ther about  it. 

He  abruptly  turned  and  asked  me  what  my  belief  was — whether  the  white 
man  expected,  when  he  died,  to  go  to  a  happy  hunting-ground,  or  a  spirit 
land.  My  answer  was  in  the  affirmative.  He  then  inquired  how  our  spirits 
reached  that  place.  Frankness  compelled  me  to  reply  that  I  did  not  know. 
The  questions  he  propounded  as  to  the  change  from  one  life  to  another  re- 
quired more  of  a  philosopher  than  I  to  answer.  Every  one  of  his  questions 
would  be  called,  if  asked  by  our  children,  "a  poser,"  and  I  found  it  was 
much  easier  to  ask  questions  of  this  nature  than  to  answer  them. 

The  Indian  believed  that  the  spirit  left  the  body  through  the  mouth,  and 
that  all  Indians  who  were  not  scalped  or  hanged  would  go  to  the  spirit  land, 
where  they  would  live  forever,  after  the  manner  they  had  lived  here,  but  on 
a  grander  scale.  He  would  need  there  all  the  things  he  required  here,  or  he 
would  not  be  happy.  Hence  the  best  weapons  he  possessed  in  life  were 
buried  with  him,  and  his  best  animals  were  killed  at  his  final  resting-place. 
As  he  expected  his  career  in  the  future  world  to  expand  and  be  far  superior 
to  his  earthly  life,  he  would,  therefore,  all  the  more  require  the  means  of 
livelihood,  and  of  defense  against  his  enemies. 

The  Indian's  idea  of  the  future  life  was  purely  materialistic.  He  had  no 
spiritual  conceptions,  consequently  it  was  impossible  for  him  to  imagine  a 
condition  of  things  in  a  future  state  different  from  what  he  knew  in  this. 
The  other  world  or  state  of  existence  was  to  him  only  a  magnification  of 
the  present  one.  Anything  that  could  be  procured  here  he  believed  could 
be  obtained  there;  hence,  the  only  things  that  were  buried  with  him  were 
those  that  would  be  needful  to  him  in  procuring  his  subsistence  in  the  spirit 
land. 

If  the  warrior  had  not  as  complete  an  outfit  as  was  deemed  needful  in  this 


134 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE    INDIANS. 


world  at  the  time  of  his  death,  his  friends  endeavored  to  supply  the  deficiency 
before  his  burial.  The  final  resting-places  were  never  despoiled.  A  super- 
stitious awe  attached  to  them,  and  no  Indian  would  dare  draw  on  himself 

the  wrath  of  the  Great  Spirit 
by  touching  any  of  the  arti- 
cles left  for  the  use  of  the 
dead. 

Another  phase  of  Indian 
belief  was  that  the  body  in 
the  next  life  would  appear  in 
exactly  the  same  form  as  it 
was  when  the  earthly  life  had 
departed  from  it.  Young  or 
old,  whole  or  mutilated,  it 
would  remain  in  the  spirit 
land  forever  the  same. 
Hence  the  fiendish  mutila- 
tions of  the  dead  by  the 
Indians.  They  would  seek, 
after  killing  their  enemy,  to 
make  his  existence  in  the 
next  life  as  miserable  as  pos- 
sible. 

The  Indian's  idea  of  a 
future  life  was  based  purely  on  tradition — he  never  reasoned  on  the  subject. 
His  fathers  believed  it  and  that  was  sufficient  for  him.  He  had  no  fear  of 
death  in  its  natural  form,  or  in  battle.  He  was  a  stoic  and  a  fatalist. 

When  Colonel  Moonlight  decided  to  execute  the  Indian  chiefs,  Big  Foot, 
Black  Crow,  and  others,  about  the  years  1864-65,  they  were  told  of  their  ap- 
proaching fate,  tied,  put  in  a  six-mule  wagou,  and  driven  to  the  place  of 
execution.  During  the  time  they  were  being  transported  to  the  gallows,  on 
which  they  were  to  be  hanged  in  chains  and  left  for  the  birds  to  prey  upon, 
or  to  rot  down  (which  they  eventually  did),  they  did  not  evince  the  slightest 
fear.  They  sang  their  weird  death  chant,  and  were  driven  under  a  scaffold 
made  of  two  poles  twenty  feet  high,  with  a  pole  across  the  top,  with  the 
chains  hanging  therefrom.  The  chains  were  adjusted  around  their  necks, 
the  wagon  driven  from  under  them,  and  they  were  left  dangling  in  the  air. 
Apparently  the  least  concerned  of  all  were  those  who  were  executed,  and,  as 
they  were  to  be  hung  in  chains,  which,  according  to  their  belief,  prevented 


MANDAN   BUErAL    PLACE — DISH  WITH   FOOD   FOR 
THE  SPIRIT. 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS.  135 

the  spirit  from  leaving  the  body  through  the  mouth,  the  stoicism  was  all  the 
more  remarkable,  as  death  came  to  them  in  its  most  dreaded  form. 

Some  tribes  of  the  great  Athabaskan  nation  had  different  ways  of  dis- 
posing of  the  bodies  of  the  dead. 

The  Zunis,  another  tribe  of  this  nation,  burned  the  bodies  of  the  dead. 
First  digging  a  shallow  hole  in  the  ground,  in  this  the  remains  were  placed ; 
logs  and  branches  were  then  laid  over  the  spot  and  set  on  fire;  after  all  had 
been  consumed,  the  location  was  marked  with  a  stone. 

The  Chippewas  of  the  Algonquin  family  buried  the  corpses  in  the  ground 
in  a  sitting  posture,  and  the  funerals  were  attended  with  great  ceremony, 
often  lasting  for  weeks.  Among  these  people  females  and  children  received 
the  same  funeral  as  the  males  and  adults. 

Some  of  the  California  tribes  had  peculiar  burial  customs:  these  are  fully 
described  in  the  chapter  on  those  Indians. 


136 


TWENTY   YEARS  AMONG  OUR  HOSTILE   INDIANS. 


CHAPTER  XVI. 

THE  GREAT  SIOUX    NATION— A  FIERCE  AND  WARLIKE   PEOPLE— LIFE  AND 

SCENES  AMONG  THEM. 

One  of  the  Largest  and  Most  Warlike  of  Indian  Nations — Old-Man- Afraid-of-his-Horses — 
A  Noted  Chief — How  he  acquired  his  Name — How  he  became  Famous — When 
and  how  a  Brave  could  change  his  Name — A  Nation  of  Meat  Eaters — Their  Manner 
of  Cooking  and  Eating — The  Universal  Dirty  Cooking  Pot — A  Voracious  Sioux — 
Drinking  Dish  Water — Why  Indians  were  constantly  on  the  Move — Always  at  War 
with  their  Neighbors — Why  they  had  no  Intoxicating  Liquors — Insulting  an 
Indian  by  asking  his  Name — Indian  Vulgarity — Indian  Mothers-in-law — How  they 
were  regarded — An  Indian  Forlorn  Hope — An  Alliance  that  meant  Death  and 
Destruction — Splendid  Horsemanship — The  Stone  Bath — Practice  of  Voodooism — 
Heroic  Treatment — Wealthy  Indians — Many  Ceremonies — Demonstrative  Love — No 
Social  Castes — Dog  Soldiers — Widely  Separated  Tribes — Superstitious  fear  of  Hail- 
storms. 

THE  name  of  the  great  Sioux  nation  as  known 
among  themselves  was  the  Lakotas  or  Da- 
kctas.  The  early  French  trappers  gave 
them  the  name  of  Nadowesioux,  or  Nad- 
oessi ;  this  was  afterward  abbreviated  to  the 
word  Sioux,  by  which  name  this  nation  has 
long  been  known. 

During  my  life  in  the  Far  West,  the 
Sioux  were  the  largest  and  most  warlike 
nation  of  North  American  Indians,  num- 
bering from  sixty  thousand  to  eighty  thou- 
sand souls  according  to  the  best  estimates, 
for  no  accurate  census  could  be  taken  at 
that  time.  They  occupied  the  entire  coun- 
try from  the  Mississippi  River  on  the  east 
to  the  eastern  chain  of  the  Rocky  Mountains 
on  the  west,  and  almost  from  the  boundary  line  between  the  British  possessions 
and  the  United  States  on  the  north,  as  far  south  as  the  Republican  River  in 
Kansas  and  an  imaginary  line  about  due  east  and  west  from  the  mouth  of 


SLOW   BULL— TYPICAL   SIOUX. 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 


13? 


that  stream,  crossing  the  South  Platte  River  between  Julesburg  and  Fre- 
mont's Orchard. 

They  were  divided  into  many  tribes,  each  with  its  own  name  and  chief. 
Some  very  prominent  Indians  wore  chiefs  of  the  different  tribes.  The  most 
noted  ohief  in  the  entire  nation  at  that  time  was  Old-Man- Afraid-of-his- 
Horses.  All  the  other  chiefs  bore  much  the  same  relation  to  him  that  the 
Governors  of  the  different  States  do  to  the  President  of  the  United  States. 

It  may  be  asked  how  Old-Man- Af raid -of-his-Horses  acquired  such  a  pecu- 
liar and  suggestive  name.  The  story  as  I  received  it  from  his  own  lips  was 
as  follows:  When  he  was  a  young  man  and  an  aspirant  for  Indian  honors, 
a  war  party  was  made  up  of  Minneconjou  Sioux  to  attack  the  Pawnees  and 
Pottawottomies  in  their  hunting  grounds  in  Kansas  and  Nebraska.  During 


SIOUX   CAMP   ON   THE   YELLOWSTONE   RIVER. 

the  battle  that  followed,  this  young  warrior  captured  some  very  vicious  horses 
and  evinced  great  fear  of  them;  for  this  the  Indians  dubbed  him  Old-Man- 
Afraid-of-his-Horses.  Being  thus  ridiculed  by  his  Indian  comrades  he  de- 
termined to  relieve  himself  of  the  stigma  fastened  upon  him  by  his  name, 
by  performing  deeds  of  valor  at  the  first  opportunity;  and  in  subsequent 
battles  he  acquitted  himself  with  such  distinction  that  his  people  looked  upon 
him  with  great  favor. 

For  these  acts  of  bravery,  his  sound  advice,  and  personal  magnetism,  he 
was  afterward  made  chief  of  the  Minneconjoux.  On  many  other  occasions 
war  parties  were  made  up  of  his  and  other  tribes  of  the  Sioux,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  making  war  on  the  Crows,  Snakes,  Utes,  Cheyennes  and  Arapahoes, 
as  well  as  on  their  old  and  inveterate  enemies,  the  Pawnees. 


138 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 


When  war  parties  were  organized,  and  he  was  one  of  them,  the  command 
by  common  consent  was  always  given  to  him;  and  he  showed  such  superior 
judgment  and  military  ability  that  he  was  soon  recognized  as  the  most  im- 
portant chief  of  the  entire  Sioux  nation.  He  was  a  man  of  large  stature, 
with  a  massive  head  denoting  superior  intelligence,  mild  in  manner,  and, 
if  it  can  be  said  of  an  Indian,  not  without  some  generous  impulses. 

It  was  customary  among  the  Sioux   when  a  brave  counted   a  coup,  to 
change  his  name  for  any  other  that  he  preferred ;  but  as  Old-Man- Afraid- 
of-his-Horses  had  achieved  great  distinction  under  his  old  name 
he  clung  to  it  ever  afterward. 

After  the  death  of  this  illustrious  old  warrior  his  name  was 
handed  down  to  his  son,  who  was  known  as  Young-Man- 
Afraid-of -his-Horses.  Both  father  and  son  were  widely  known, 
and  for  years  retained  great  influence  with  the  Sioux.  Both 
tried  as  far  as  lay  in  their  power  to  keep  the  Sioux  at  paece 
with  the  white  people. 

The  country  occupied  by  the  Sioux  was  the  natural  home  of 
the  buffalo,elk,  moose,  black,  white-tailed,  and  mule  deer,  the 
antelope,  mountain  sheep,  black,  grizzly,  and  cinnamon  bear, 
beaver,  otter,  foxes  of  various  kinds,  gray  wolves,  black 
wolves  of  the  timber,  and  coyotes.  These  animals,  in  addition 
to  their  dogs,  horses,  and  mules,  supplied  them  with  an  abun- 
dance of  meat;  for  the  Sioux  ate  the  flesh  of  all  the  animals 
mentioned.  When  they  were  fortunate  in  a  hunt  and  secured 
more  meat  than  they  could  eat  at  the  time,  the  women  jerked 
and  cured  the  surplus  by  cutting  it  into  long  strips,  which  were 
hung  over  poles  outside  of  the  lodge,  and  out  of  the  way  of  dogs 
and  wolves,  leaving  them  there  until  thoroughly  dried.  The 
meat  was  then  packed  in  bags  made  of  hide,  and  kept  for  use 
during  the  winter  months  after  the  buffalo  had  migrated  to  a 
warmer  climate. 

The  Sioux  were  carnivorous.  They  did  not  eat  cereals,  or 
vegetable  food.  They  often  ate  their  meat  raw  while  the  blood 
of  the  animal  was  still  warm.  Commerce  and  trade  were  un- 
known to  them.  They  fashioned  their  own  implements  of  war, 
stole  what  they  could  from  their  neighbors,  and,  later  on,  from  emigrants 
and  freighters  crossing  the  plains. 

They  were  great  gluttons  and  ate  enormous  quantities  at  a  time,  which 
<lid  not  seem  to  distress  them  in  the  least.  When  they  had  a  pot  or  other 
vessel  suitable  to  cook  in,  the  meat  was  put  into  it  and  boiled.  When  they 


BARBED     A  R- 

ROW   HEAD 

— SIOUX. 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG  OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS.  139 

had  no  vessel  the  meat  was  thrown  on  the  coals  and  broiled,  or  held  over 
the  fire  and  roasted.  Tbe  cooking,  when  in  camp,  was  done  by  the  women. 
If  they  had  a  pot  it  was  always  on  the  fire,  and  the  contents  were  kept  con- 
stantly boiling.  Each  individual  helped  himself  whenever  he  felt  like  it, 
everybody  fishing  out  the  food  from  the  pot  with  their  fingers;  as  Indians 
never  washed  their  hands  the  pot  and  its  contents  after  a  time  would  become 
anything  but  clean.  I  have  never  been  attracted  by  Indian  cooking,  unless 
when  stimulated  by  excessive  hunger;  and  then  I  preferred  my  meat  broiled 
rather  than  have  it  cooked  in  the  universal  pot. 

While  many  of  the  stories  told  of  the  Indian's  insatiable  appetite  are 
grossly  exaggerated,  it  is  nevertheless  true  that  he  could  consume  at  times 
an  amount  of  food  that  would  astonish  the  white  man.  This  may  be  partly 
accounted  for  by  the  fact  that  the  Indian  passed  most  of  his  time  in  the 
open  air,  in  a  state  of  bodily  activity,  and  did  not  take  his  meals  with  regu- 
larity. 

An  amusing  illustration  of  the  Indian's  abnormal  appetite  came  under 
my  personal  experience  in  the  Rocky  Mountains.  My  command  encamped 
in  the  vicinity  of  Deer  Creek,  some  miles  below  Fort  Caspar.  A  body  of 
troops  were  crossing  to  the  Pacific  slope  and  encamped  within  a  few  miles 
of  us.  I  had  been  apprised  in  advance  of  their  coming,  and  had  secured  for 
the  officei  s  a  pleasant  surprise  in  the  way  of  an  abundant  supply  of  fresh 
meat  of  the  antelope  and  mountain  sheep,  and  other  eatables  usually  accept- 
able to  soldiers  after  a  weary  march  over  the  arid  and  scorching  plains.  I 
rode  down  to  the  camp  shortly  before  dinner  and  invited  the  commanding 
officer  and  his  staff  to  dine  with  us.  He  replied  by  inviting  me  to  dine  with 
him  and  his  mess,  remarking  that  he  had  an  abundance  of  bacon  and 
hominy.  I  laughingly  answered,  as  I  urged  my  invitation,  that  I  had  an 
Indian  in  my  camp,  a  Sioux  brave,  who  alone  could  eat  all  he  had.  "If 
your  Indian  can  do  that,"  he  replied,  "I  will  accept  your  invitation  with 
pleasure."  I  accordingly  despatched  one  of  my  escort  to  our  camp,  with 
instructions  to  return  with  Short  Ribs,  which  was  the  name  of  the  voracious 
individual  referred  to.  The  mess  was  duly  set,  and  the  Indian  invited 
to  eat.  He  needed  no  pressing,  but  at  once  proceeded  to  clear  the  table.  As 
the  victuals  continued  to  disappear,  the  astonishment  of  the  officers  was 
amusing  to  behold.  Short  Ribs  soon  devoured  all  the  food  that  had  been 
prepared.  I  asked  if  they  had  anything  more  left;  the  officer  laughingly 
answered,  "Nothing  except  a  basin  of  dish-water."  This  was  ordered  to  be 
brought  in.  Short  Ribs  placed  the  dish-pan  to  his  lips  and  drank  about  a 
third  of  its  contents,  setting  down  the  vessel  with  a  grunt  of  satisfaction, 
which  indicated  that  he  considered  it  the  proper  beverage  with  which  to 


LITTLE  WOUND — WAR  BONNET    DECORATED    WITH    SCALPS    ON    END    OF    FEATHERS — 

BEADED   LEGGINGS   AND   MOCCASINS— RED   STONE   PIPE  AND   ORNAMENTED    STEM. 
Twenty  Years  Among  Our  Hostile  Indians.  Page  140 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE    INDIANS. 


141 


wash  down  bis  enormous  meal.     The  amount  of  food  consumed  by  him  on 
this  occasion  had  been  prepared  for  four  hungrj*  army  officers. 

Large  bodies  of  nomadic  people  cannot  long  remain  in  the  same  place, 
especially  if,  like  the  Indians,  they  have  a  great  number  of  animals,  as 
the  struggle  for  food  and  fodder  is  ceaseless.  Owing  to  their  numbers  the 
Sioux  were  less  stationary  than  other  nations;  as  they  lived  exclusively  by 
the  chase,  they  had  to  be  constantly  on  the  move  to  maintain  existence.  In 
summer  they  hunted  the  buffalo  and  other  aniamls,  and  their  horses  lived 


_  ~~ZZ'7"~  ?— 5*^*' 

V^*k  ^*rWB55*P*8| 

~~ 


GROUP  OF   SIOUX — WOMAN    ON   RIGHT,  SHOWING   MANNER   OF   SITTING   ON   THE   LEGS. 


on  the  grass;  in  the  winter  they  were  compelled  to  secure  food  for  their 
animals.  This  was  frequently  supplied  by  the  tender  branches  and  the  in- 
ner bark  of  the  cottonwood  tree.  As  the  Sioux  had  no  axes  or  implements 
for  felling  trees,  they  often  followed  in  the  track  of  the  beaver,  which  in 
some  localities  cut  down  with  its  teeth  enough  trees  to  give  sufficient  food 
fcr  the  Indian's  animals.  This  fact  affords  a  striking  illustration  of  the 
countless  number  of  beavers  that  existed  along  the  streams  and  rivers  of  the 
West  in  those  days. 

The  Sioux  roamed  over  so  vast  a  territory  that  they  were  almost  continu- 
ally  at    war   with    some   of    their  surrounding  neighbors;   owing  to  their 


142  TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG  OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 

superior  numbers  they  were  generally  victorious.  Man  to  man  they  were 
not  equal  to  the  Cheyennes  as  warriors,  but  were  more  advanced  in  general 
knowledge  than  any  other  wild  Indian  nation.  They  learned  many  things 
that  were  unknown  to  smaller  tribes,  as  they  were  brought  into  contact 
with  the  white  man  more  than  any  other  tribe  or  nation,  as  civilization 
trended  to  the  west. 

The  Fremont  trail,  or  the  Overland  route,  led  through  the  heart  of  their 
territory.  They  attacked  emigrant  and  other  wagon  trains  crossing  the 
plains,  and  from  these  marauding  expeditions  secured  arms,  implements, 
and  supplies  of  many  kinds.  They  sometimes  captured  muskets  and  am- 
munition, and  were  intelligent  enough  to  use  them.  After  the  ammunition 
had  been  exhausted  these  arms  were  practically  useless  until  more  could  be 
obtained  in  a  like  manner ;  meantime  they  would  return  to  the  use  of  their 
own  implements  of  war  and  destruction. 

After  the  establishment  of  trading  posts  along  the  Overland  road  the  Sioux 
began  to  trade  with  the  white  man,  a  few  of  them  visiting  the  stations  and 
bartering  with  the  traders  for  articles  which  they  carried  to  their  far-off 
homes.  Trading  posts  were  necessarily  many  miles  apart,  and  all  were  thor- 
oughly fortified.  Each  post  had  a  large  corral  for  the  protection  of  men  and 
animals,  and  was  well  adapted  for  defense.  The  corrals  were  made  of  trunks 
of  trees  a  foot  or  more  in  diameter,  sunk  deep  and  firmly  in  the  ground, 
standing  close  together  and  usually  abcut  ten  feet  high,  having  holes  and 
interstices  through  which  to  fire  in  case  of  attack.  The  Indians  traded 
largely  through  middlemen.  They  exchanged  with  the  traders  the  tanned 
hides  of  the  buffalo,  antelope,  elk,  moose,  deer,  bear,  mountain  sheep,  and 
the  flint  and  tanned  hides  of  the  beaver,  otter,  wolf,  fox,  and  other  animals, 
receiving  in  return  small  round  mirrors,  red  cloth,  blankets,  paints  with 
which  to  paint  their  faces  and  bodies,  and  other  coveted  articles. 

The  trader  in  those  days  was  careful  to  prevent  the  red  man  from  obtain- 
ing intoxicating  liquors,  should  they  have  any  on  hand,  which  was  rare,  as 
the  government  prohibited  liquors  being  taken  into  the  Indian  country. 
Most  of  the  hackneyed  stories  of  the  Indian  being  ruined  and  demoralized 
by  the  firewater  of  the  unprincipled  white  trader  are  baseless  and  absurd. 
The  trader,  knowing  Indian  character  too  well,  was  anxious  under  all  cir- 
cumstances that  they  should  not  have  liquor,  well  knowing  that  one  or  two 
drunken  Indians  would  be  liable  to  make  trouble  at  his  post,  and  that  he 
might  be  the  first  to  suffer  by  them.  For  this  reason  the  traders  themselves 
were  especially  anxious  to  prevent  any  person  supplying  the  Indians  with 
liquor. 

One  of  the  most  impolite  things  a  Sioux  could  do  was  to  ask  another  his 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 


143 


name.  The  Indian  to  whom  such  an  inquiry  was  addressed  would  not  re- 
ply, but  would  haughtily  turn  to  some  one  who  knew  him,  and  say  in  the 
loftiest  manner,  "Tell  him  my  name."  Every  Indian  considered  himself 
so  prominent  and  well  known  that  he  regarded  the  question  an  insult  to  his 
dignity.  Sioux  names,  both  male  and  female,  were  often  obscene  beyond 
expression.  Generally  the  names  referred  to  some  personal  peculiarity  of 
those  who  bore  them,  or  to  some  incident  or  exploit  in  their  career.  Thus : 
Crying  Eagle,  Lone  Elk,  Long  Dog,  Skulking  Wolf,  Kicking  Horse,  Bear 
Tamer,  The-One- Who- Walks-under-the-Sun,  The-One- Who-  Walks-Before- 
Day,  The-One-Who-Strikes-Twice,  Crazy  Horse,  Eagle  Eye,  Bear  Catcher, 
Blue  Day,  Rain  Cloud,  Snow  Eater,  and 
so  on  interminably.  I  mention  these  be- 
cause they  were  the  names  of  noted  In- 
dians of  different  tribes,  all  of  whom  I 
knew.  The  Sioux  located  their  camps 
far  away  from  military  posts,  frontier 
traders,  and  the  Overland  road.  When 
braves  of  this  class  met  on  the  warpath  it 
meant  an  assault  upon  every  living  thing 
of  flesh  and  blood  with  which  they  came  in 
contact. 

The  only  thing  that  was  considered  vul- 
gar by  a  Sioux  was  to  speak  to  his  mother- 
in-law.  This  custom  was  carried  to  the 
farthest  extreme.  If  any  communication 
was  to  be  made  to  a  mother-in-law,  it  was 
invariably  made  through  a  third  party, 
generally  some  member  of  the  family; 
but  it  was  their  unwritten  law  that  under 
no  circumstances  should  an  Indian  speak 
to  his  mother-in-law.  I  tried,  but  unsuc- 
cessfully, to  ascertain  why  the  custom 
prevailed ;  but  no  one  could  or  would  tell 
me  its  origin  or  why  it  was  so  persistently 
adhered  to.  No  one  seemed  to  have  suf- 
ficient courage  to  face  the  ridicule  that 
would  follow.  I  once  asked  an  Indian, 

"Suppose  your  wife  was  dangerously  ill,  and  your  mother-in -law  was  the  only 
person  present,  and  it  should  be  necessary  to  give  her  instructions  on  the 
carrying  out  of  which  depended  your  wife's  life,  what  would  you  do?" 


GOOD  HAWK,  IN    FULL  CEREMONIAL 
COSTUME — SIOUX. 


144 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 


"I'd  let  my  wife  die,"  he  replied  with  a  grunt,  "before  I  would  speak  to 
my  mother-in-law. 5> 


SIOUX   CAMP — SHIELD    ON   TEIPOD   WITH   SCALP   HANGING  FROM   THE  CEN1ER. 

When   the  shield   of  a  warrior   was  fastened  on  a  tripod  outside  of  his 
lodge,  with  a  scalp  dangling  from   the  center  of  the  shield,  it  informed  all 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS.  145 

comers  that  the  scalp  was  captured  by  one  of  the  male  members  of  the  lodge. 
It  was  a  token  of  no  little  significance.  A  visitor  could  not  tickle  the  vanity 
of  an  Indian  more  than  to  enter  the  lodge  and  make  inquiries  about  this 
trophy.  He  would  be  told  in  the  most  graphic  manner  of  the  terrible  battle 
with  the  owner  of  the  scalp,  of  his  desperate  character,  and  of  the  hair- 
breadth escape  the  brave  had  in  killing  his  victim  and  securing  the  prize. 
Indian  ingenuity  would  be  almost  exhausted  in  describing  the  different 
stages  of  the  fight,  and  the  tremendous  difficulty  the  warrior  had  in  dis- 
patching so  gallant  a  foe.  Nothing  pleased  the  braves  more  than  to  be 
asked  all  the  minor  details  of  the  combat,  and  the  imaginary  or  real  battle 
would  be  described  in  glowing  colors.  I  use  the  word  imaginary,  for  should 
they  by  stealth  manage  to  kill  a  person  while  asleep  they  would  weave  about 
it  a  picture  of  prowess  and  glory  that  could  not  be  outdone  by  Cooper  or 
Longfellow. 

In  treating  the  sick  the  Sioux  used  the  stone  bath.  A  large  number  of 
round  boulders  were  placed  in  a  pile,  eight  to  ten  feet  in  length,  three  to  four 
feet  in  width,  and  one  to  two  feet  in  height.  On  this  a  fire  was  kept  burn- 
ing until  the  stones  were  thoroughly  heated,  after  which  the  fire  was  re- 
moved, and  sticks  two  or  three  feet  high  were  bent  over  the  entire  pile. 
Over  these  sticks  were  thrown  the  coverings  of  lodges,  three  or  four  thick- 
nesses, making  the  hole  thus  enclosed  almost  air-tight.  In  this  the  person 
who  was  to  receive  a  hot-air  bath  was  placed,  lying  at  full  length  on  the 
heated  stones  over  which  was  spread  his  blanket  or  buffalo  robe.  If  a  steam 
bath  was  required  water  was  thrown  on  the  stones  while  the  patient  occupied 
the  bath. 

The  suffering  of  a  patient  in  one  of  these  baths  was  intense,  although  the 
sufferer  would  never  display  signs  of  discomfort.  The  patient  was  kept  in 
them  from  twentjr  minutes  to  two  hours ;  when  the  bath  was  over,  he  would 
sometimes  take  a  plunge  into  the  river  or  pond,  near  which  the  sweat  houses 
were  always  built. 

The  appearance  of  the  patient  as  he  emerged  from,  the  sweat  house,  after  a 
long  bath,  was  pitiable.  He  was  usually  bleached  to  a  deathly  color,  and 
presented  the  appearance  of  one  who  had  undergone  a  trying  ordeal. 

Another  manner  of  treating  the  sick  was  through  the  ministrations  of  the 
medicine  man  and  his  voodooism.  He  would  make  wild  gesticulations, 
and  do  mysterious  things  that  nobody  could  understand,  under  pretense  of 
benefiting  the  afflicted  person.  When  his  conjury  failed  he  would  endeavor 
to  save  his  reputation  by  claiming  that  he  had  not  called  upon  the  right  "med- 
icine" to  effect  the  cure.  The  old  women  resorted  to  voodooism  also, 


146  TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 

as  well  as  to  teas  made  from  herbs,  meats,  berries,  and  barks;  even  portions 
of  rare  animals  were  often  administered  in  efforts  to  relieve  the  afflicted. 

One  of  the  greatest  feats  known  to  the  Sioux  was  termed  by  them  "throw- 
ing himself  away,"  or  "pouring  himself  out,"  and  would  be  with  us  called 


SWEAT   HOUSE   OF   THE   SIOUX. 


"a  forlorn  hope."  When  one  nation  determined  to  have  a  pow-wow  or  a 
talk  with  another  with  whom  it  was  at  war,  a  party  of  young  warriors 
would  carefully  approach  and  signal  the  other  party.  If  their  signal  was 
not  respected,  one  or  two  of  the  warriors  were  selected  to  make  a  dash  into 
the  camp  or  a  village  of  the  enemy  with  whom  a  talk  was  desired.  All  be- 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 


147 


ing  in  readiness,  the  warriors  would  "throw  themselves  away."  Mounted 
on  their  best  horses,  and  riding  at  the  top  of  their  speed,  they  would  dash 
into  the  camp  of  the  enemy,  gesticulating  in  the  sign  language  that  they 
wanted  to  talk.  If  the  feeling  was  not  too  bitter  between  them  they 
might  be  accorded  a  pow-wow.  If  the 
pow-wow  was  granted  they  would 
sit  conversing  for  hours  in  the  sign 
language.  Should  their  desires  not 
be  granted,  however,  they  paid  the 
penalty  of  their  rashness  with  their 
lives.  If  the  interview  terminated 
favorably,  it  portended  disaster  for 
some  one,  as  it  meant  the  alliance  of 
the  two  peoples  for  the  warpath. 
When  Indians  allied  in  this  way,  the 
warriors  of  one  vied  with  those  of  the 
other  in  deeds  of  bravery  and  atroc- 
ity. A  war  party  of  this  kind  was 
always  formidable,  and  left  nothing 
undone  to  accomplish  the  object  for 
which  the  alliance  was  formed.  When 
the  object  of  the  expedition  had  been 
attained,  the  alliance  which  had  been 
made  with  such  great  effort  came  to 
an  abrupt  end,  and  it  would  not  be 
long  before  the  parties  were  again  at 
war  with  each  other;  though  there 
are  instances  where  such  alliances 
were  lasting,  namely,  between  the 
Cheyennes  and  Arapahoes,  Utes  and 
Apaches,  Comanches  and  Kiowas. 

The  Sioux — and  all  Indians  for 
that  matter— were  splendid  horsemen, 
using  saddles  of  wood  made  by  them- 
selves ;  these  were  covered  with  raw- 
hide sewed  with  a  thong  of  the  same  material.  After  this  covering  had  shrunk 
and  dried  on  the  saddle  it  was  very  tight.  The  stirrups  were  also  made  of  wood, 
covered  with  rawhide,  the  stirrup  straps  being  short.  The  bridle  consisted  of  a 
long  lariat  or  rawhide  rope,  the  noose  of  which  was  placed  looselj' 
around  the  animal's  neck,  thence  to  and  around  the  lower  jaw  in 


MEDICINE   MAN    MAKING   MEDICINE. 


148  TWENTY   YEARS  AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 

two  half  hitches,  and  thence  to  the  rider.  The  long  end  was  left  trailing  on 
the  ground,  the  rider  using  it  as  a  whip  when  driving  the  herd.  When  he 
desired  to  strike  one  of  the  herd  he  could,  by  a  dexterous  nmvement 
of  the  forearm,  hit  an  animal  a  severe  blow  on  any  part  of  the  body  he 

wished. 

All  men,  women,  and  children,  when  riding,  carried  a  quirt.     This  was 


TYPICAL  INDIAN   SADDLE — WARRIOR  IN   FULL   MOURNING. 

a  riding-whip,  with  a  handle  of  wood  from  twelve  to  fifteen  inches  in  length 
and  of  convenient  size.  Through  a  hole  in  the  end  a  rawhide  thong  was 
passed,  in  two  strands,  with  a  knot  in  the  middle.  The  lashes  were  from 
twelve  to  eighteen  inches  in  length.  At  the  other  end  a  thong  of  tanned 
skin  was  placed  through  a  hole  made  in  a  loop,  and  passed  over  the  wrist 
for  carrying  it.  A  whip  made  after  this  fashion  was  a  severe  instrument; 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS.  (149 

with  it,  an  Indian  would  take  an  animal  which  had  been  overridden 
and  abandoned  by  a  white  man  and  get  many  more  miles  of  travel  out 
of  it. 

The  Sioux  wore  moccasins  of  two  kinds,  one  kind  having  soles  of  flint 
hide  and  uppers  of  buckskin  sewed  together  with  sinews;  the  other  was 
made  from  one  piece  of  buckskin,  the  soles  and  uppers  being  alike.  Mocca- 
sins were  generally  ornamented  with  bead  work  of  various  colors,  or  porcu- 
pine quills :  moccasins  were  strong  and  durable,  and  well  adapted  for  going 
over  rough  ground ;  they  were  also  soft,  pliable,  and  comfortable  for  the 
wearer  in  dry  weather. 

The  Sioux — men,  women  and  children — frequently  wore  large  ornaments 
in  their  ears,  which  were  slit  open  from  the  top  to  the  bottom  of  the  lobe, 
sometimes  with  an  inner  cut.  From  these  slits  hung  pendants  of  various 
kinds,  often  of  huge  size  and  length.  These  consisted  of  Iroquois  shells  or 
beads,  and  to  the  end,  which  hung  over  the  shoulders  to  the  breast,  was 
attached  a  huge  shell,  usually  mussel  or  mother-of-pearl.  From  the  inner 
slit  hung  rings  of  brass,  copper,  or  iron.  Wristlets  and  armlets  of  wire 
were  commonly  worn. 

In  the  extent,  variety,  and  quality  of  their  handiwork  the  Sioux  were  far 
in  advance  of  any  other  Indians  of  the  West. 

Their  women  were  more  comely  than  those  of  other  Indians.  This  may 
be  partly  accounted  for  by  their  manner  of  living.  Occupying  an  immense 
territory,  abounding  in  all  kinds  of  game,  the  women  were  not  subjected  to 
the  privations  and  drudgery  endured  by  the  women  of  other  nations. 

A  certain  sort  of  communism  prevailed  among  the  Sioux.  Sometimes 
several  families  occupied  the  same  lodge,  and  the  stock  of  food  was  common 
to  all.  But  unlike  some  others,  there  was  no  tribal  communism. 

The  Sioux  were  polygamous,  securing  their  wives,  few  or  many,  by  pur- 
chase after  the  usual  Indian  fashion.  Infidelity  was  practicably  unknown 
among  them,  and  families  lived  in  harmony  in  their  homes.  They  possessed 
more  wealth  in  horses,  mules,  lodges,  robes,  skins,  arms  and  wearing  ap- 
parel than  any  of  the  savage  Indians  in  the  entire  West.  Wild  horses  were 
numerous  in  their  territory,  from  the  herds  of  which  they  caught  large 
numbers. 

The  Sioux  had  more  ceremonies,  dances,  feasts  and  pastimes,  than  any 
other  nation  of  wild  people  on  this  Continent. 

Living  in  a  good  climate  they  were  constantly  engaged  in  some  outdoor 
amusement.  Their  clothing  was  well  made,  and  for  Indians  they  were  well 
dressed. 

Their  Indian  weapons  were  of  the  best.     Nearly  all  of  them  had  the  red 


150 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG  OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 


stone  pipe;  groups  of  men  would  sit  in  circles  in  the  open  air  smoking  them 
in  silence  for  hours.  These  people  believed  in,  and  worshiped  the  Great 
Creator,  to  whom  they  smoked.  Originally  they  smoked  the  pulp  of  the 
red  willow;  when  they  could  procure  tobacco  it  was  mixed  with  killikinick 
for  smoking,  Some  of  their  pipe-stem  ornamentation  was  handsome,  i.e., 
for  Indians.  The  tribes  of  the  Sioux  living  along  the  foot  hills,  or  in  the 
Rocky  Mountains  were  the  most  ferocious  of  any  Indians  I  have  known — 

being  so  far  removed  from  civilization,  they 
seldom  saw  or  came  in  contact  with  the 
whites. 

In  those  days  it  was  perilous  for  the  whites 
to  enter  their  country.  After  our  Powder 
River  expedition  opened  their  territory,  they 
continually  attacked  and  killed  the  troops,  as 
well  as  others  who  had  the  temerity  to  enter 
their  hunting  grounds.  These  tribes  were 
numerous,  and  well  able  to  defend  themselves 
against  all  comers. 

The  Sioux  buried  their  dead  warriors  on 
scaffolds  or  in  trees.  The  bodies  of  dead  fe- 
males and  children  were  thrown  into  gullys 
or  ravines,  then  covered  with  stones  or 
branches  of  trees;  wild  beasts  and  birds 
soon  left  no  trace  of  them. 

The  only  case  of  demonstrative  love  that  came  under  my  observation 
among  the  wild  Indians  was  in  the  tribe  of  the  Ogalalas  of  this  nation.  A 
short,  stout,  comely  young  girl  caught  the  heart  of  a  young  man.  They 
were  so  enamored  with  each  other  that  they  were  constantly  together.  He 
would  sit  for  hours  by  her  side,  combing  her  hair  with  a  stick,  oiling  and 
braiding  it,  painting  and  patting  her  face,  and  paying  her  his  most  delicate 
attentions.  If  water  was  needed  he  would  run  for  it,  returning  in  the  short- 
est time.  He  finally  secured  her  for  his  wife  without  cost  or  ceremony. 
After  this  they  seemed  more  cemented  together  than  before.  So  strong  was 
his  affection  that  he  could  not  be  induced  to  go  on  a  war  party,  or  to  any 
place  she  could  not  accompany  him.  The  others  ridiculed  him,  calling  him 
"woman's  heart."  This  made  no  difference ;  he  was  the  same  constant  lover. 
When  I  last  saw  them  they  had  no  children,  and  their  love  seemed  as 
deep-rooted  as  ever.  They  lived  with  his  parents,  who,  for  Indians,  were 
well-to-do.  It  was  not  necessary  that  he  should  go  on  the  hunt,  conse- 
quently they  were  not  separated,  and  both  seemed  to  take  no  other  interest 


SIOUX     WOMAN  —  SHIRT    ORNA- 
MENTED WITH  DEER  HOOFS. 


TWENTY    YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 


151 


in  life  than  to  be  together  all  the  time.  Their  conduct  was  so  unusual  that 
the  tribe  could  scarcely  understand  what  to  make  of  them.  At  first  some  of 
the  Indians  claimed  both  were  crazy.  After  they  learned  what  it  meant 
they  were  the  admiration  of  the  tribe. 

The  oral  language  of  the  Sioux  was  rich  in  words,  pleasant  to  the  ear,  and 
easily  learned.     Some  of  the  tribes  living 
along  the  Missouri  River  had  a  slight  dia- 
lect.    They  acquired  this  from  their  sur- 
rounding neighbors. 

There  were  no  social  castes  among  the 
Sioux.  Every  person  seemed  on  the  same 
level  in  this  respect.  There  was  a  semi- 
military  organization  known  among  them- 
selves as  the  "Dog  Soldiers."  Each  mem- 
ber of  this  fraternity  had  an  insignia  of 
some  kind,  usually  a  lance,  spear,  shield, 
or  war  implement,  which  he  carried  as  a 
mark  of  distinction. 

With  this  in  full  view,  warriors  would 
strut  about  iu  the  most  imperious  manner. 
Each  member  considered  it  a  great  honor  to 
belong  to  the  "Dog  Soldiers,"  and  thought 
himself  much  better  than  those  who  were 
not  members  of  this  organization. 

What  the  object  of  this  clan  was,  I  was 
never  quite  able  to  discover,  as  they  had  no 
drills  or  other  war  instruction. 

This  was  the  only  society  of  any  kind 
among  the  wild  Indians  in  those  days. 

The  Sioux  differed  from  the  majorit)*  of 
other  nations  in  that  the  large  tribes  were 
not  subdivided  into  numerous  small  ones. 
Each  of  the  large  tribes  retained  their  dis- 
trict tribal  cohesion. 

Should  necessity  compel  them  to  sepa- 
rate temporarily,  the  members  remained 
loyal  to  their  original  tribe;  consequently  each  tribe  of  this  nation 
was  large  and  powerful.  Some  of  the  tribes  were  so  widely  scattered  that 
their  members  rarely,  if  ever,  met.  This  was  notably  true  of  the  Assiniboins, 
Mandans  and  Yanktons,  and  the  Ogalalas,  Minneconjoux  and  Uncpapas. 


ZIN  THA  KIN-YAN     (FLYING     BIRD) — 

TYPICAL  SIOUX — TOBACCO  POUCH, 

LEGGINGS     AND    MOCCASINS 

ORNAMENTED  WITH  BEADS 

OF   VARIOUS   COLORS. 


152 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE    INDIANS. 


The  Sioux  were  very  superstitious,  and  nothing  filled  them  with  terror 
more  than  a  severe  hailstorm  during  summer.  This  they  believed  was  the 
Great  Spirit  showing  his  anger.  Severe  hailstorms  caused  them  much  trou- 
ble as  well  as  loss,  as  their  animals  were  often  stampeded  beyond  recovery. 
Lodges  were  sometimes  broken  to  pieces  by  the  large  hail  stones. 

After  one  of  these  storms,  both  men  and  women  believed  their  medicine 
had  been  broken.  Then  they  went  through  their  mysterious  rites  in  trying  to 
recover  the  broken  charm. 


STORY  TELLING — SIOUX 


TWENTY   YEARS  AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 


153 


CHAPTER  XVII. 

STILL  AMONG  THE  SIOUX— THE  MANDANS— INDIAN  FREE  MASONS— THE 
ASSINIBOINS— THE  GROS  VENTRES,  OR  THE  BIG  BELLIES,  CUISSES 
BRULES  OR  BURNT  THIGHS. 

The  Mandans — Their  Interesting  History — Nearly  Exterminated  by  Small-Pox — Indian 
Free  Masons — A  Great  Mystery — How  did  they  Acquire  a  Knowledge  of  the  Order? — 
Their  Pastimes — The  Buffalo  Dance — Manner  of  Disposing  of  their  Dead — How  the 
Skulls  of  their  Dead  were  Used — Their  Happy  Domestic  Life — The  Assiniboins — 
Their  Hunting  Ground — A  Far  Northern  Trite  of  Indians — Their  Characteristics  and 
Customs — Scourged  by  Small-Pox — The  Gros  Ventres,  or  Big  Bellies — Origin  of  the 
Name— The  Brules— Battle  of  Ash  Hollow— The  Ogalalas— Their  Country— The  Bad 
Faces — The  Yankton  Sioux — Their  Hunting  Ground — The  Minneconjoux — A  Savage 
Tribe — Their  Hunting  Ground — The  Uncpapas — A  Fierce  Tribe — Where  they  Lived 
— The  Kaws  or  Kansas — The  Winnebagoes — The  Poncas — The  Omahas — The  Osages 
— The  Quapaws,  or  Arkansas — The  Otoes — The  lowas. 

THE  Mandans  were  a  portion  of  the  great 
Sioux  family,  and  originally  belonged  to 
the  Yankton  Sioux,  from  whom  they  sep- 
arated at  the  time  the  Assiniboins  left  the 
Sioux  nation.  Their  home  or  principal 
hunting  ground  was  to  the  north  of  the 
Missouri  River,  and  about  the  mouth  of 
Wood  River.  They  were  first  known  by 
the  white  man  when  Lieutenants  Lewis 
and  Clark  made  their  exploration  of  the 
Missouri  River;  at  that  time  they  were 
among  the  most  intelligent  Indians  on  this 
continent. 

They  lived  in  huts  which  were  superior 
to  anything  of  the  kind  built  by  Indians 
north  of  New  Mexico.  Their  dwellings 
were  circular  in  shape,  and  from  twenty  to 
thirty  feet  in  diameter.  The  framework 
was  made  of  poles  and  posts,  the  whole 
covered  by  willow  mats,  and  thatched  with  grass  and  covered  with 


MANDAN. 


154  TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG  OUR  HOSTILE   INDIANS. 

earth.  The  roof  was  conical,  a  hole  being  left  in  the  center  to  let 
out  the  smoke.  The  entrance  was  by  a  long  passage,  something  like  that 
of  an  Esquimaux  snowhouse.  Inside  were  curtains  of  willow  matting, 
which  divided  the  hut  into  rooms.  Mats  of  this  kind  were  also  used  to  car- 
pet the  floor. 

Their  habitations  were  kept  clean  and  neat,  and  the  floors  were  swept 
daily.  Their  beds  were  usually  on  the  ground ;  these  were  kept  clean,  being 
made  of  robes  of  the  buffalo  and  other  animals. 

In  the  center  was  a  large  open  space,  within  which  a  fire  was  built  to  keep 
the  hut  warm,  as  well  as  to  do  the  family  cooking.  One  of  these  huts  would 
accommodate  from  twenty  to  thirty  persons,  though  at  times  the  number  of 
the  occupants  was  less,  at  other  times  much  greater. 

The  Mandansatone  time  numbered  about  two  thousand  five  hundred;  but 
were  reduced  by  the  small-pox  to  less  than  twenty-five  persons. 

They  had  a  rude  kind  of  civilization.  The  sexes  wore  a  different  dress; 
had  certain  rules  of  decency  and  manners  unknown  to  their  surrounding 
neighbors.  While  polygamy  may  have  been  permissible  among  them,  it 
was  not  generally  practiced.  They  were  a  peaceable  people,  consequently 
the  men  were  not  killed  off  in  battles  between  themselves  and  neighbors. 
I  have  never  heard  of  their  going  on  the  warpath  at  any  time,  either 
before  or  since  the  small-pox  opidemic. 

It  is  claimed  that  they  understood  the  principles  of  freemasonry.  How 
they  acquired  this  knowledge,  if  they  had  it,  no  one  I  have  ever  met  has 
been  able  to  satisfactorily  explain.  During  the  winter  that  Lieutenants  Lewis 
and  Clark  passed  near  their  villages,  some  member  of  this  expedition  may 
have  taught  the  Mandans  the  secrets  of  this  order. 

Their  sports  and  pastimes  were  more  numerous  than  that  of  any  other 
tribe  of  Indians  in  the  great  Northwest,  and  consisted  of  ball  playing,  at 
which  they  were  experts,  canoe  racing,  and  many  other  pastimes.  In  none 
of  these  amusements  did  they  indulge  in  rough  horse  play,  so  common  to  the 
Indians. 

The  Buffalo  dance  of  the  Mandans  was  sometimes  continued  for  days 
uninterruptedly.  The  Mandans  attributed  the  annual  coming  of  buffalo  to 
their  observance  of  this  ceremony,  and  would  persist  in  it  until  the  animals 
appeared.  This  dance  was  often  grotesque.  In  the  center  of  the  village 
was  a  circular  space  of  perhaps  two  hundred  feet  in  diameter,  in  the 
center  of  which  a  lot  of  stout  poles,  about  eight  or  ten  feet  in  length,  were 
firmly  planted  upright  in  the  ground  and  bound  together  with  thongs  or 
young  saplings.  This  sacred  spot  was  the  rallying  point  of  the  whole 
tribe. 


CHIEF  WITH  BIG  WAR  BONNET — FULL  DRESS — BEADED    LEGGINGS    AND    MOCCASINS — 

TOMAHAWK — SIOUX . 
Twenty  Years  Among  Our  Hostile  Indians.  Page  155 


156  TWENTY   YEARS  AMONG  OUR  HOSTILE   INDIANS. 

During  the  dance  two  braves,  with  the  skin  of  grizzly  bears  thrown  over 
them,  stood  by  the  poles,  while  the  principal  dancers,  clad  in  buffalo  hides 
with  the  horns,  hoofs  and  tails  on  them,  wildly  jumped  and  yelled,  making 
ludicrous  efforts  to  imitate  the  actions  of  the  buffalo.  The  bodies  of  the 
dancers  were  nearly  naked,  and  were  painted  in  fantastic  colors.  Each 
dancer  had  a  lock  of  buffalo's  hair  tied  to  his  ankles,  holding  in  one  hand  a 
rattle,  in  the  other  a  small  rod  or  staff,  while  a  bundle  of  willow  branches 
was  tied  to  his  back. 

In  this  condition  the  dancers  made  all  sorts  of  manoeuvres,  «nd  bodily  con- 
tortions, appealing  to  the  Great  Creator  to  send  the  buffalo.  Both  sexes, 
children  and  the  aged,  joined  in  the  dance.  This  was  the  greatest,  as  well 
as  the  most  important  ceremony  they  had. 

They  were  staunch  believers  in  the  efficacy  of  this  dance,  that  without 
it  the  buffalo  would  not  return.  This  is  probably  the  reason  why  it  was  con- 
tinued so  long  at  a  time. 

In  their  religious  belief  the  Mandans  worshiped  the  Great  Creator. 
They  also  believed  that  the  soul  of  the  departed  went  to  a  happy  spirit 
land,  that  its  path  would  be  strewn  with  food,  and  everything  in  readiness 
for  a  comfortable  journey.  Neither  did  they  kill  their  horses  and  animals 
under  the  trees  or  scaffolds  where  their  dead  were  placed.  Some  of  their 
legends  relating  to  the  journey  of  the  spirit  to  its  new  home  were  poetic  and 
beautiful. 

The  Mandans  wrapped  their  dead  in  skins  and  placed  them  in  trees  or  on 
scaffolds  to  dry,  always  being  careful  to  have  them  at  sufficient  height  to 
be  out  of  the  reach  of  carnivorous  beasts.  After  the  bodies  crumbled  to  dust 
and  the  bones  and  skulls  fell  to  the  ground,  they  were  gathered  by  members 
of  the  tribe.  The  skulls  were  placed  in  a  circle  around  a  hill  or  mound  in 
which  were  also  buffalo  skulls,  food  was  placed  at  night  near  the  remains  by 
relatives  of  the  dead,  or  other  members  of  the  tribe.  This  food  was  supposed 
to  be  consumed  by  the  spirits  of  the  deceased  after  their  departure  for  the 
spirit  land. 

Often  food  was  left  at  the  funeral  place  after  there  was  nothing  left  but 
the  skulls  and  bones. 

Sometimes  the  skulls  were  collected  and  placed  in  a  large  circle,  the  face 
being  outward ;  a  receptacle  was  then  placed  in  front  of  each  skull  and  food 
was  left  on  it  for  the  spirit.  In  the  center  of  the  circle  several  poles  were 
set  in  the  ground,  then  buffalo  skulls  were  fastened  to  them  near  the  top. 
To  these  places  relatives  and  friends  went  almost  daily;  here  they  sang 
weird  chants  for  the  spirits  of  the  dead. 


TWENTY  YEARS.  AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE    INDIANS. 


The  Mandans  had  great  reverence  for  the  dead  and  burial  places,  more  so 
than  any  other  Indians  in  the 
West. 

The  Mandans  were  not 
nomadic,  but  lived  in  fixed 
habitations.  Some  of  their 
villages  were  quite  large. 
They  were  governed  by  se- 
lectmen. Neither  did  they 
have  medicine  men  who 
claimed  to  cure  by  vood- 
oo ism.  The  sick  were 
treated  by  administering 
teas,  made  from  herbs,  roots, 
berries,  leaves,  etc.  They 
were  expert  boatmen  with  the 
bull-boat  and  canoe. 

In  the  division  of  the  prop- 
erty of  a  dead  Mandan  an 
effort  was  made  to  dispose  of 
it  equitably  by  giving  to 
each  member  of  the  family  a 
fair  share  of  his  earthly 
possessions ;  it  rarely  occurred 
that  a  controversy  arose  about 
the  distribution.  There  was 
less  jealousy  and  more  good 
feeling  among  the  different 
members  of  the  tribe  than 
among  any  other  Indian 

people    in    the  entire   West.     Sometimes  eight  or  ten  families   would  oc- 
cupy one  habitation  at  the  same  time,  yet  all  lived  in  peace  and  harmony. 


WASH-ONA-KOORA— RUSHING  WAR  EAGLE— BEAR- 
CLAW  NECKLACE — MANDAN   SIOUX. 


THE  ASSINIBOINS. 

The  Assiniboins  were  among  the  most  northerly  of  any  Indians  on  this 
continent,  their  hunting  grounds  extending  as  far  into  the  British  possessions 
as  the  Great  Slave  Lake,  and  about  as  far  south  as  the  Missouri  River.  They 


158 


TWENTY   YEARS  AMONG  OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 


were  a  part  of  the  great  Sioux  family,  and  originally  belonged  to  the  Yank- 
ton  Sioux,  from  whom  they  separated  in  the  early  part  of  this  century. 

Why  they  left  the  Yankton  has  always  been  a  mystery.  They  must  have 
had  some  reason  satisfactory  to  themselves  for  leaving  and  going  so  far 
north  to  such  an  inhospitable  climate.  The  members  of  this  tribe  were 
much  darker  in  color  than  the  Sioux  in  general. 

Their  skins  were  rough  and  coarse,  which  was  something  unusual  among 
the  Sioux.  Like  the  others  of  this  nation  they  were  polygamous  until  they 
joined  the  Mandans;  after  this,  although  permissible,  it  was  not  practiced. 


SIOUX   CAMP   AT   AGENCY. 


At  one  time  they  were  a  cruel,  vicious  and  treacherous  people,  murdering 
every  white  man  who  entered  their  country.  After  joining  the  Mandans 
they  became  more  tractable. 

They  were  called  by  the  other  tribes  of  the  Sioux,  "Hopa,"  or  Rebels. 
For  a  long  time  they  made  their  home  near  Lake  Winnipeg,  frequently 
going  south  far  into  the  United  States,  but  not  with  hostile  intentions. 
They  sometimes  formed  alliances  with  other  tribes  or  quarreled  among  each 
other,  but  remained  at  peace  with  the  whites.  At  one  time  the  tribe  was 
numerous,  and  next  to  the  Mandans  it  was  probably  one  of  the  most  intelli- 
gent in  this  country.  In  the  early  part  of  this  century  they  lived  exclu- 
sively by  the  chase;  as  game  was  abundant  at  that  time,  they  lived  well. 
Inhabiting  an  extremely  cold  climate  they  made  warm  clothing  for  them- 
selves from  the  skins  of  various  animals. 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS.  159 

They  understood  the  making  and  handling  of  all  kinds  of  boats.  The 
bull-boats  were  of  great  service  to  them  in  crossing  rivers  with  their  stores 
during  journeys  to  the  south,  when  the  rivers  and  streams  were  swollen  by 
the  melting  snows  from  the  mountains. 

In  habits,  customs  and  personal  appearance  the  Assiniboins  resembled  the 
Sioux  closely.  They  spoke  the  same  language,  and  their  home  life  was 
nearly  the  same.  They  were  a  cleanly — and  if  such  a  thing  can  be  said  of 
Indians — a  thrifty  people.  All  their  belongings  were  superior  to,  and  better 
cared  for  than  those  of  any  other  Indians  in  that  country,  except  the  Man- 
dans.  When  the  small-pox  epidemic  visited  the  northern  country  with  such 
fatal  results  it  nearly  exterminated  the  Assiniboins.  Those  that  were  left 
immediately  moved  north  to  Lake  Winnipeg,  where  they  remained  for  a 
long  time,  believing  that  the  Great  Creator  had  sent  this  scourge  among 
them  for  wrongs  they  had  committed,  or  for  having  gone  south  to  the  vicin- 
ity of  the  Missouri  River. 

I  have  never  been  able  to  learn  why  they  were  called  Assiniboins,  as  they 
did  not  themselves  use  this  name,  but  were  known  to  each  other  as  the 
Assinpalik,  or  Stone  Sioux.  They  greatly  assisted  Lieutenants  Lewis  and 
Clark  while  making  their  first  expedition  up  the  Missouri  River,  these  ex- 
plorers having  passed  a  winter  near  one  of  their  villages. 


GROS  VENTRES,  OR  BIG  BELLIES. 

The  name  Gros  Ventres,  or  Big  Bellies,  as  applied  to  the  Indians  of  the 
prairie,  is  a  misnomer.  The  term  was  applied  to  this  tribe  by  French 
Canadian  trappers  and  traders,  because  they  claimed  some  of  the  mem- 
bers of  the  tribe  had  abdomens  of  aldermanic  proportions. 

So  far  from  being  a  corpulent  people,  the  so-called  Gros  Ventres  were  a 
lithe  and  well-formed  race;  in  fact  obesity  was  almost  unknown  among 
them.  They  were  as  comely  and  active  as  any  tribe  in  the  Northwest. 

In  characteristics,  customs,  habits,  and  general  appearance  little  can  be 
said  of  them  that  has  not  already  been  said  of  the  Sioux  in  general. 

Their  hunting  ground  was  near  the  northern  limits  of  the  United  States, 
principalljT  around  the  north  fork  of  Milk  River,  and  east  of  the  eastern  chain 
of  the  Rocky  Mountains. 

As  their  country  was  cold  and  inhospitable  during  winter  they  moved  east 
to  the  regions  of  the  Mandans  and  Assiniboins,  and  were  there  when  the 
small-pox  epidemic  visited  that  region. 


160 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 


The  entire  tribe  was  nearly  exterminated  by  this  scourge. 

After  that  event  the  Mandans,  Assiniboins,  and  Gros  Ventres  lived  in 
the  immediate  vicinity  of  each  other,  all  three  tribes  living  together  in 
friendship  and  harmony.  The  Gros  Ventres  gave  up  polygamy  and  their 
savage  ways,  adopting  the  mode  of  life  of  the  other  two  tribes. 


BURNT  THIGHS,  OR  BRULE  SIOUX. 

In  early  days  one  of  the  most  powerful  of  the  Sioux  tribes  was  the  Brules. 
At  that  time  the  French  trappers  gave  them  the  name  of  the  Cuisses  Brules, 

meaning  burnt  thighs.  They 
were  distinctly  a  prairie  people, 
and  claimed  as  their  hunting 
ground  what  is  now  Western 
Kansas  and  Nebraska. 

This  territory  was  covered  with 
tall,  rank  grass.  In  the  fall  or 
winter  the  grass  became  dry  and 
very  inflammable. 

When  it  caught  fire  the  heat 
was  intense,  and  the  spread  of  the 
flames  so  rapid  that  scarcely  any- 
thing could  get  out  of  its  way. 

Prairie  fires  were  often  caused 
by  lightning. 

Many  of  this  tribe  were  caught 
by  prairie  fires  and  burnt  to  the 
waist.  It  was  for  this  reason  the 
early  French  gave  them  this 
name.  They  have  adopted  the 
name  into  their  own  language, 
and  have  been  known  by  it  for  a 
long  time. 

All  other  tribes  or  nations 
TA-TO-KAIN-YOU-KA  RUNNING  ANTELOPE—  wnen  speaking  of  them  in  the 

TYPICAL   BRULE  SIOUX.  ,1-1,1  ,£ -r, 

sign  language  called  them  'Burnt 

Thighs."     In   early  xlays  they  were  a  very  fierce  and  vicious  lot,  causing 
much  trouble  to  all  the  whites  and  other  Indians  who  entered  their  country. 


TWENTY    YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 


161 


Singing  Bear  was  chief.  He  was  an  able,  daring  and  treacherous*  leader, 
and  was  constantly  planning  mischief. 

Under  his  leadership  the  Brules  committed  many  serious  depredations  on 
the  whites.  Finally  the  Government  was  aroused,  and  sent  a,n  expedition 
to  chastise  them. 

This  was  under  the  command  of  General  William  S.  Harney,  United 
States  Army,  familiarly  known  as  "Old  Harney." 

BATTLE  OF  ASH  HOLLOW. 

About  the  year  1856-'57  he  organized  a  cam. 
paignat  Foit  Leavenworth,  Kansas,  consisting 
of  about  thirteen  hundred  troops  to  proceed 
against  the  hostiles  who  had  been  committing 
depredations  all  along  the  Platte  Valley.  His 
force  was  composed  of  infantry  and  dragoons, 
and  what  is  now  the  First  and  Second  Cavalry 
was  then  the  First  and  Second  Dragoons. 
General  Harney  arrived  with  his  command  at 
Ash  Hollow,  which  is  in  a\alle3Ton  Ash  Creek, 
a  tributary  to  tue  Platte.  Joe,  Tesson,  an  old 
plainsman  and  mountaineer,  was  his  principal 
guide.  After  discovering  Indian  signs,  Tesson 
made  a  reconnaissance  and  reported  to  Harney 
that  there  were  large  bodies  of  Indians  in  the 

vicinity.  Harney  prepared  his  troops  for  battle,  and  marching  down  the 
bed  of  a  dry  creek,  he  soon  came  in  front  of  the  Indian  camps.  Upon  seeing 
the  troops  the  Indians  sent  forward  two  of  their  number  for  a  pow-wow,  in 
order  to  gain  time  to  enable  them  to  retreat.  Harney,  knowing  Indian 
character  thoroughly,  had  sent  a  portion  of  the  dragoons  up  the  valley  to  cut 
off  all  chance  of  escape. 

The  two  warriors  who  had  been  in  conversation  with  Harney,  seeing  that 
their  ruse  had  failed,  immediately  returned  to  their  people.  After  deliver- 
ing a  volley,  the  dragoons  charged,  scattering  the  Indians  in  every  direc- 
tion. Harne3T  promptly  ordered  the  infantry  to  advance  and  fire.  The  latter 
soon  put  their  opponents  to  flight.  After  this  it  was  a  running  fight  between 
the  Indians  and  Dragoons.  The  Indian  horses  being  fresh,  soon  carried 
their  riders  out  of  danger,  although  the  flight  extended  a  distance  of  about 
ten  miles. 

In  this  engagement  the  red  men  lost  over  one  hundred  killed,  and  left 


BRULE   SIOUX   WITH   WAR  BON- 
NET. 


162 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 


behind  them  twenty-five  wounded. 


MA-TO-SHI-SHA— WICKED      BEAR— WAR     BONNET 

DECORATED  WITH   SCALPS  ON  TIPS  OP 

FEATHERS— SIOUX 


The  other  wounded  were  carried  off 
by  the  Indians.  About  a  hun- 
dred women  and  children  were 
captured,  besides  a  large  num- 
ber of  animals.  All  their  camp 
equipage  and  provisions  were 
destroyed  by  the  troops.  A 
large  quantity  of  clothing  and 
other  articles  of  civilization 
were  found  in  their  camps, 
which  had  formerly  belonged 
to  emigrants,  and  others, 
whom  they  had  doubtless 
slain.  Among  the  animals 
taken  in  this  fight  were  a 
number  of  horses  that  had 
formerly  been  attached  to  the 
artillery,  and  were  captured 
by  the  Indians  on  the  occasion 
of  the  G rattan  massacre,  thus 
showing  that  the  Ogalala  and 
Brule  Sioux  had  been  the 
chief  actors  in  that  bloody 
affair.  Among  the  Indians 
who  lost  their  lives  in  this  bat- 
tle was  the  noted  chief,  Sing- 
ing Bear.  It  was  he  who  led 
the  Indians  on  this  and  former 
occasions.  After  his  death 
Little  Thunder  assumed  com- 
mand. He  reorganized  his 
warriors  and  prepared  for  con- 
tinued depredations,  claiming 
that  his  people  had  not  been 
defeated,  but  only  demoralized 
by  the  death  of  Singing  Bear 
Little  Thunder  was  chief 
when  I  knew  this  tribe,  and 
was  an  Indian  of  superior 


judgment.     He  was  a  giant  physically,  weighing  about  two  hundred  and 


TWENTY    YEARS   AMONG  OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 


163 


seventy-five  pounds,  and  fully  six  feet  six  inches  tall.  After  this  battle  the 
Brules  recognized  the  power  of  the  army,  and  were  more  inclined  to  peaceful 
ways  toward  the  whites. 

This  tribe  took  part  in  the  massacre  of   1864,  killing  every  person  for 
some  three  hundred  miles  along  the  Overland  road. 

Immediately  after  the 
massacre  I  went  over  this 
road. 

The  scenes  of  destruc- 
tion, death  and  desolation 
were  appalling. 

Travel  ceased  over  this 
line  for  the  whole  season, 
and  it  was  a  long  time  be- 
fore the  country  was  again 
sufficiently  quieted  for  set- 
tlers to  enter  that  territory 
in  safety. 

THE  OGALALAS. 

The  Ogalalas  were  also 
a  numerous  and  warlike 
tribe.  They  claimed  as 
their  hunting  ground  all 
that  territory  west  of  the 
Brules,  to  the  country  of 
the  Minnecoujoux,  and 
from  about  the  northern 
boundary  of  Colorado  as 
far  north  as  the  Yellow- 
stone River.  Practically 
they  were  plains  Indians, 
as  there  was  but  little  tim- 
ber in  the  country  they 
roamed  over.  Some  of  the  members  of  this  tribe  who  lived  in  the  north 
were  very  savage.  At  the  treaty  at  Fort  Laramie,  Wyomi  g,  Red  Cloud 
said  to  the  officers  present,  that  it  wastho  first  time  that  he  and  many  of  his 
warriors  were  ever  under  a  roof  made  of  shingles. 

Red    Cloud  was  chief  of  this  tribe,  and    was  very  noted  among  all  the 
Indians  and  whites  of  the  West. 


MATO-YEN-MNI — OGALALA — THREE  BEARS  AND   WAR 
BONNET — SIOUX. 


164 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 


This  tribe  caused  much  trouble,  and  it  was  necessary  for  the  Govern- 
ment to  keep  a  strong  military  force  in  their  country  at  all  times  to  keep 

them  quiet. 

THE    BAD    FACES. 

The  Bad  Face  tribe  lived  within  the  hunting  ground  of,  an.,  were  strong 
allies  of  the  Ogalalas.  Black  Curling  Smoke  was  chief  of  the  Bad  Faces. 
When  the  warriors  of  these  two  tribes  went  on  the  warpath  together  they 
were  very  formidable.  When  in  battle  they  were  very  fierce,  as  both  tried 
to  out  do  each  other. 

These  two  tribes  wsre  so  closely  allied  that  they  were  practically  one, 
there  being  a  sort  of  communism  among  them,  the  warriors  of  both  going 
on  raids  and  the  warpath  together,  without  the  ceremony  of  a  big  talk  to 
decide  on  an  agreement  or  understanding. 

They  selected  wives  and  husbands  from  each  other  as  though  of  the 
same  tribe.  Neither  of  these  tribes  knew  anything  about  building  or  han- 
dling canoes  or  the  bull-boats. 

THE  YANKTON  SIOUX. 

Originally  the  Yankton  Sioux  were  a  powerful  tribe.  For  a  long  period 

they  occupied  what  is  now 
portions  of  Iowa,  Minnesota, 
Dakota  and  Nebraska  as  their 
hunting  ground. 

As  their  country  became  set- 
tled by  whites,  they  grew  less 
and  less  aggressive  toward 
them. 

It  was  a  portion  of  this  tribe 
who  were  the  principal  actors 
in  the  New  Ulm  massacre. 
After  that  bloody  affair  their 
warlike  spirit  was  greatly  re- 
duced. 

They  have  long  been  under 
civilizing  influences,  conse- 
quently are  not  troublesome. 
Some  of  the  Yanktons  left 
their  tribe,  form  ing  themselves 
into  new  tribes,  moving  far 

away  from  their  original  homes;  adopting  new  names  by  which  they  were 
afterward  known. 


YANKTON  sioux  IN  THEIR  HOMES. 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 


165 


THE  MINNECONJOUX  TRIBE. 

The  Minneconjoux  were  another  large  tribe  of  the  Sioux  famity.     They* 
claimed  and  occupied  as  their  hunting  ground  all  the  territory  east  of  the 
eastern     chain    of   the   Rocky 
Mountains,  and  as  far  east  as 
the  country  of  the  Ogalalas,  as 
far  south  to  about  the  northern 
boundary  of  Utah,  and  as  far 
north   as   the   country   of    the 
Uncpapa. 

Being  so  far  removed  from 
civilization  they  rarely  came 
in  contact  with  the  whites. 

Consequently  they  remained 
in  ignorance  of  the  ways  of 
civilization  longer  than  many 
other  of  their  kindred  tribes. 
The  Minneconjoux  were  very 
fierce  and  savage,  retaining  all 
their  innate  savagery  longer 
than  any  tribe  of  the  Sioux. 

When  the  Bozeman  road 
was  opened  through  their 
country,  they  became  greatly 
alarmed,  and  the  warriors  of 
the  whole  tribe  started  on  the 
warpath  against  the  whites, 
attacking  troops,  travelers,  and 
all  who  came  within  their 
hunting  ground. 

It  was  not  until  our  Powder 
River  expedition  entered  their 
country  that  they  realized  the 
strength  of  the  Government 
and  became  reconciled  to  the  advance  of  civilization. 

Even  after  this  they  constantly  attacked   the  troops,  defeating  them  on 
several  occasions. 

Their  chief,  Man-Afraid-of-his-Horses,  was  the  general  who  planned  and 
carried  out  most  of  the  attacks. 


SPOTTED   DOG — SIOUX. 


166 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG  OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 


It  was  not  until  after  the  Civil  War  ended  that  sufficient  troops  were  sent 
to  subdue  these  savage  people,  that  this  country  was  safe  for  miners,  pros- 
pectors, and  wagon  trains  to  enter. 


THE  UNCPAPA  TRIBE. 

Another  very  fierce,  savage,  numerous  and   warlike  tribe  of  the  Sioux 
was  the  Uncpapa. 

They  had  their  hunting  ground  immediately  above  the  Minnecon  joux  and 

below  that  of  the  Crows. 
The  chief  of  this  tribe  was 
Gall. 

He  was  one  of  the  ablest 
leaders  of  the  entire  Sioux 
nation, 

The  Uncpapa  and  Minne- 
conjoux  Sioux  united  in  their 
resistance  to  the  entrance  of 
the  whites  through  their  re- 
spective hunting  grounds. 

Under  the  leadership  of 
such  able  men  as  Gall  and 
the  Man  -  Afraid  -  of  -  his  - 
Horses,  the  savages  of  both 
tribes  fought  the  advance  of 
the  whites  with  great  vigor 
and  ferocity,  and  it  was  not 
until  after  the  battle  of  Little 
Big  Horn  that  this  country 
was  safe  for  any  one  to  enter 
who  did  not  belong  to  either 
of  the  tribes  mentioned. 

Both  these  tribes  were 
almost  constantly  at  war 
with  the  Utes,  their  neighbors  on  the  south;  the  Crows  and  Snakes,  their 
northern  and  northwestern  neighbors;  their  eastern  neighbors,  the  Northern 
Cheyennes.  These  two  tribes  frequently  joined  in  war  parties  going  south 
to  the  country  of  the  Cheyennes  and  Arapahoes  to  make  war  upon  them.  Being 
almost  constantly  in  battle,  they  became  skilful  warriors,  and  were  the  dread 


BLOODY  MOUTH — UNCPAPA   SIOUX. 


TWENTY   YEARS  AMONG  OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS.  167 

of  the  surrounding  tribes.  They  even  defeated  troops  in  battle  for  many 
years,  and  it  was  not  until  after  the  battle  of  Little  Big  Horn  that  they 
were  finally  subdued. 


THE  KAWS,  OR  KANSAS. 

The  Kaws,  or  Kansas,  were  a  part  of  the  Sioux  family,  and  occupied 
the  territory  just  west  of  the  Missouri  River,  which  is  now  em- 
braced in  the  State  of  Kansas.  In  their  wild  state  they  lived  wholly  by  the 
chase.  The  buffalo  was  plentiful,  and  they  were  able  to  secure  their  food 
without  much  difficulty.  The  country  occupied  was  an  excellent  tract  of 
land  and  if  they  had  had  the  inclination  could  have  raised  by  agriculture 
a  sufficient  amount  of  food  for  their  wants.  The  Indian's  natural  aversion 
to  labor  prevented  this,  and  they  were  on  the  verge  of  starvation  nearly  all 
the  time,  until  the  Government  came  to  their  relief.  Even  this  furnished 
them  with  but  scanty  supplies  of  food. 

They  were  of  small  numerical  strength,  but  were  treacherous  to  their 
weak  neighbors,  on  whom  they  made  war.  In  their  habits  and  customs 
little  can  be  said  that  does  not  apply  to  all  Indians  of  that  territory. 


WINNEBAGOES. 

The  Winnebagoes  originally  lived  in  territory  lying  between  Green  Bay 
and  Lake  Winnebago,  in  the  present  State  of  Wisconsin.  Though  belong- 
ing to  the  great  Dakota  family  they  allied  themselves  with  the  Sacs  and 
Foxes  and  Pottawattomies,  against  the  Dakotas,  and  the  fierce  Huron- 
Iroquois.  They  were  always  a  peace-loving  people,  and  were  never  inclined 
to  make  trouble  for  red  man  or  white,  if  let  alone. 

They  had  a  fine  country,  the  streams  and  lakes  furnishing  an  abundance 
offish.  Game  was  plentiful,  and  they  lived  well  for  Indians;  they  remained 
on  their  lands  until  the  pressure  of  the  white  population  compelled  them  to 
cede  them  to  the  Government  and  move  west  of  the  Mississippi.  They  were 
again  removed  to  a  reservation  in  Minnesota,  where  they  were  assured  a 
"permanent  home."  Here  they  made  progress,  although  they  became 
addicted  to  drunkenness  and  gambling,  both  of  which  vices  they  learned 
from  the  whites.  Many  of  them  became  discontented  and  wandered  back  to 
their  old  home  in  Wisconsin,  where  they  remained. 


168  TWENTY   YEARS   AMONd   OUR   HOSTILE7  INDIANS. 

When  the  Sioux  massacre  broke  out  in  1863,  the  Winnebagoes  refused  to' 
join  the  hostile  Indians,  and  the  Sioux  threatened  to  exterminate  them. 
After  the  massacre  the  people  of  Minnesota  demanded  that  all  Indians  be 
removed  from  the  State,  and  the  Winnebagoes  were  again  removed  from 


GROUP  OF   SIOUX   IN   CEREMONIAL  DRESS. 


their  homes,  at  their  own  expense.  They  were  located  in  a  barren,  alkali 
tract  of  country  in  Dakota  near  the  Missouri  River,  where  nothing 
grew,  and  they  dared  not  go  to  hunt  for  fear  of  the  surrounding  hostile 
tribes.  To  escape  starvation  they  built  canoes,  and  the  greater  portion  of 
them,  about  two  thousand  in  number,  made  their  way  down  the  river  to  the 
Omahas  in  Nebraska. 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 


THE  PONCAS. 

This  tribe  was  a  part  of  the  Sioux  nation. 
Poncas  came  into  contact 
with  the  white  man  they 
were  looked  upon  as  be- 
ing among  the  most  peace- 
able Indian  peoples  of 
the  West.  Their  original 
home  was  near  a  branch  of 
the  Red  River  and  Lake 
Winnipeg.  They  were  after- 
ward driven  west  of  the  Mis- 
souri River  by  their  old 
enemy,  the  Chippeways. 
The  latter  again  drove  them 
from  their  new  home,  and  the 
Poncas  joined  the  Omahas, 
who  became  closely  allied 
with  them. 

War  was  constantly  made 
on  these  people  by  the  Sioux, 
Pawnees,  Osages,  and  the 
Kaws  or  Kansas.  These 
wars  greatly  reduced  them 
in  numbers,  and  small-pox 
and  the  white  man's  vices 
destroyed  most  of  the  sur- 
vivors. The  remnant  was 
placed  on  a  reservation  near 
the  mouth  of  the  Niobrara 
River  in  Nebraska. 

The  Government,  failing 
to  carry  out  the  terms  of  its 
treaty  with  them,  they  were 
again  compelled  to  go  on  the 
hunt,  but  were  forced  to 
return  by  their  old  ensmies. 
After  this  they  suffered  se- 
verely from  want  of  food. 
Afterward  they  were 


Frorp   the   first  time  the 


IRON   FACE. 


170  TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 

forcibly  removed  to  the  Indian  Territory,  where  they  suffered  from  un- 
wholesome water.  A  great  many  of  their  animals  died,  and  from  one 
hundred  and  fifty  to  two  hundred  out  of  the  total  of  seven  hundred  of 
the  Poncas  died  in  a  short  time.  The  remainder,  after  a  three-months' 
journey,  succeeded  in  reaching  their  old  friends,  the  Omahas. 

The  treatment  of  these  peaceable  Indians  by  the  Government  aroused  much 
discussion  throughout  the  country,  and  they  were  afterward  restored  to  their 
rights  on  their  former  reservation  at  the  mouth  of  the  Niobrara  River  in 
Nebraska. 


THE  OTOES. 

To  the  south  of  the  Omahas  lived  this  tribe  of  Indians.  They  were  a  part 
of  the  great  Dakota  family,  from  whom  they  separated  in  the  early  part  of 
this  century.  Little  is  to  be  said  of  them  that  is  not  applicable  to  their 
ancestors,  the  Sioux.  They  were  few  in  number,  and  living  near  the  border 
of  civilization,  early  secured  the  articles  of  the  white  man,  and  fell  into 
his  habit  sooner  than  those  living  farther  west. 


THE  OSAGES. 

The  Osages  were  a  part  of  the  Dakota  or  Sioux  nation,  and  were  one  of 
the  most  intelligent  tribes  of  this  family.  They  had  their  home  in  Kan- 
sas, and  were  at  war  with  nearly  all  the  Indians  in  that  section,  and  physi- 
cally were  one  of  the  finest  bodies  of  Indians  in  this  country.  Man  for  man 
in  war  they  were  equal,  if  not  superior,  to  the  Cbeyennes. 

They  had  a  large  number  of  horses  of  which  they  took  great  care.  They 
had  a  peculiar  custom  of  cutting  their  hair;  cutting  it  off  both  sides  of  the 
head,  except  a  roach  from  the  front  to  back  below  the  scalplock  about  three 
inches  wide  and  three  inches  in  height. 

Their  tall,  erect  forms  with  this  roach  added,  made  them  appear  a  great 
deal  taller  than  they  really  were,  and  with  their  fine  physique  gave  them  an 
imposing  appearance.  As  to  their  characteristics  and  customs  nothing  can 
be  said  about  them  that  does  not  apply  to  the  Sioux  nation. 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 


171 


THE  OMAHAS. 

The  Omahas,  a  part  of  the  Sioux, 
were  found  on  the  St.  Peter's  River,  where 
they  lived  an  agricultural  life,  supporting 
themselves  from  the  soil.  After  a  terrible 
visitation  of  the  small-pox,  which  reduced 
their  numbers  greatly,  they  abandoned 
their  village  and  wandered  west  to  the 
Niobrara  River,  in  Nebraska.  After  a 
succession  of  treaties  and  removals,  they 
were  located  on  a  reservation  in  eastern 
Nebraska,  where  they  rapidly  improved 
in  civilization  and  pecuniary  resources. 
They  were  a  peaceable  and  inoffensive 
people  from  the  time  they  were  first  vis- 
ited by  white  men  until  their  removal  to 
the  reservation  assigned  them. 


OMAHA   INDIAN    OF     RANK— INSIGNIA 

OF  HAND  ON    BKAD  ORNAMENTED 

CAP. 


THE  IOWAS. 

The  lowas  when  first  found  by  white  men  occupied  the  territory  bordering 
on  the  Mississippi  River,  in  the  present  State  of  Iowa.  They  were  closely 
allied  with  the  Winnebagoes,  and  belonged  to  the  same  stock.  Their 
hunting  grounds  extended  east  as  far  as  Illinois.  The  Sacs  and  Foxes 
pressed  into  their  territory,  and  drove  them  back  far  toward  the  Mississippi. 


THE  QUAPAWS,  OR  ARKANSAS. 

The  Quapaws,  or  Arkansas  Indians,  also  of  Sioux  stock,  had  their 
former  home  on  the  Ohio  River.  They  were  subsequently  pushed  west  by 
their  warlike  neighbors.  They  finally  settled  near  the  mouth  of  the  Arkan- 
sas River.  They  have  become  much  reduced  in  numbers,  and  since  their 
removal  to  a  reservation  in  the  Indian  Territory,  several  other  tribes  have 
amalgamated  with  them. 

The  early  French  trappers  and  traders  called  all  the  Sionx,  who  had  their 
hunting  ground  about  the  headwaters  of  the  Mississippi  River,  and  to  the 


CHIEF   OF    THE   OilAHAS. 


Twenty  Years  Among  Our  Hostile  Indians. 


Page  172. 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG  OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS.  173 

west,  Tetons,  believing  that  all  Sioux  in  that  country  belonged  to  this  tribe. 

On  account  of  their  superior  numbers,  the  Sioux  in  that  vicinity  exercised 
control  over  the  entire  territory  they  roamed  over,  driving  the  tribes  of  other 
nations  out,  and  seizing  their  lands. 

The  Chippeways,  having  secured  firearms  earlier  than  the  Sioux, 
attacked  them,  forcing  them  from  their  original  hunting  ground  westward, 
claiming  the  territory  as  their  own.  After  this  different  tribes  of  the 
Sioux  located  along  the  Missouri  River  and  throughout  the  Northwest,  where 
they  remained  until  the  Government  finally  placed  them  on  reservations. 

Nearly  all  the  Sioux  nation  were  physically  fine  specimens  of  manhood, 
and  were  of  a  general  uniform  type.  Both  sexes  were  tall,  straight,  and  of 
athletic  build. 

Their  faces  were  pleasing,  the  eyes  bright  and  beamed  with  intelligence; 
none  had  the  fierce,  wild  eyes  so  common  in  the  Shoshonee  family.  The 
prominent  Roman  nose  was  usually  seen  in  both  sexes.  Their  skins  were 
smooth  and  of  a  fine  copper  color,  and  with  their  coal-black  hair,  neatly 
dressed,  gave  them  the  appearance  of  the  ideal  Indian. 

All  the  Sioux  were  the  most  proud,  haughty  and  imperious  Indians  in 
the  entire  West,  and  their  defeat  by  the  Chippewas  was  a  severe  blow  to, 
them. 


174 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 


CHAPTER  XVIII. 

THE  COMANCHES— FIERCE  TRIBES  OF  THE  SHOSHONEE  NATION— GUARDING 
AGAINST  AMBUSH  AND  SURPRISE— THRILLING  INCIDENTS. 

Where  the  Comanches  Lived — A  Fierce  and  Implacable  Foe — A  Terror  to  all  Settlers — 
Alliance  with  the  Apaches — Bloody  Raids — A  Mexican  Bandit  Leader  and  his  Fol- 
lowers— A  Lot  of  Murderous  Renegades — The  Comanches  Receive  their  First 
Chastisement — Attack  on  Fort  Lancaster — Soldiers  Lassoed  while  Guarding  their 
Herds — Carried  Away  and  Murdered — Carrying  the  Mail  through  a  Hostile  Coun- 
try in  a  Concord  Buggy — Cruel  Fate  of  the  Driver  and  Guard — The  Wagon  Train — 
Vast  Sums  in  Gold  and  Silver  Carried  through  a  Hostile  Country — How  the  Trains 
Were  Waylaid — Horrible  Fate  of  a  Wounded  Trainman — Guarding  against  Sur- 
prise. 

THE  Comanches  were  the  most  southerly 
branch  of  the  Shoshonee  nation.  Their 
original  language  was  Shoshone,  but  liv- 
ing so  long  near  the  Mexicans,  they  ac- 
quired a  mongrel  sort  of  dialect.  Some 
of  them  understood  the  Spanish  language, 
but  would  not  converse  in  it  unless  they 
were  engaged  in  some  nefarious  expedition, 
and  desired  it  charged  to  the  Mexicans. 

The  name  Comanche,  by  which  these 
people  were  known,  is  supposed  to  have 
been  given  to  them  in  early  days  by  the 
Spaniards.  The  name  they  originally  had 
and  by  which  they  called  themselves, 
was  Naiini,  which  meant  in  their  tongue, 
"Those  that  live,"  or,  "We  are  alive." 
Years  ago  they  were  numerous  but  be- 
came much  reduced  by  war,  disease, 
and  other  causes.  At  one  time  cholera 
and  yellow  fever  threatened  them  with 

extermination,  for,  like  all  other  Indians,  they  had  no  effectual  means  of 

combating  disease. 


WIFE  OF  CHEVERS— COMANCHE. 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS.  175 

The  principal  rendezvous  of  the  Comanches  for  a  greai  many  years  was  in 
the  Hueco  Mountains,  Texas,  and  in  the  passes  of  the  Chihuahua  Mountains, 
in  Mexico.  They  were  divided  into  four  or  five  different  tribes  each  under  its 
own  chief. 

The  names  of  the  largest  or  principal  tribes  were  the  Yamparack,  and 
the  Tenawa.  The  former  roamed  over  the  country  east  of  the  Lipans,  and 
were  the  fiercest  as  well  as  the  most  numerous  tribe  of  the  Comanches. 

The  Comanches  were  among  the  fiercest  Indians  on  this  continent.  For 
years  they  committed  depredations  in  Texas,  on  the  settlers,  traders,  and 
others,  killing  hundreds  of  men,  women  and  children. 

During  the  time  the  present  state  of  Texas  was  a  Republic  the  Comanche 
committed  so  many  deprecations  against  its  inhabitants  that  they  or- 
ganized the  Texas  Rangers  to  repel  and  drive  them  out  of  that  country. 
When  attacked  by  these  troops  they  fled  across  the  Rio  Grande  River  into 
Mexico,  knowing  that  the  troops  could  not  enter  that  country  to  give  them 
battle. 

Here  they  recuperated  until  ready  for  another  dash  into  Texas.  These 
raids  continued  until  as  late  as  1875  or  1876. 

When  committing  depredations  on  the  citizens  of  that  Republic,  and  pur- 
sued by  Mexican  troops,  they  would  recross  the  Rio  Grande  into  Texas, 
where  they  felt  secure  for  a  time  with  their  plunder.  They  terrorized  the 
entire  country  along  the  Rio  Grande  from  its  mouth  to  its  source,  and  on 
both  sides  of  it,  roving  north  into  the  United  States  for  hundreds  of  miles, 
and  south  into  Mexico  for  probably  the  same  distance.  To  them  belongs 
the  discredit  of  keeping  that  portion  of  Texas  entirely  unsettled  until  about 
I860  or  1867. 

It  was  not  until  after  our  Civil  War  that  the  Government  sent  troops  to 
Texas,  who  prevented,  to  a  certain  extent,  these  marauding  Indians  from 
continuing  their  frequent  expeditions.  The  entire  country  for  probably  a 
hundred  to  a  hundred  and  fifty  miles  in  Texas,  parallel  with  the  Rio  Grande 
River,  was  without  grazing  herds  of  domestic  animals,  solely  on  account  of 
these  depredations.  Even  after  the  troops  were  sent  there  the  Comancbes 
continued  their  destructive  and  frequent  raids,  and  for  a  time  effectually 
prevented  the  country  from  being  settled.  The  Comanches,  Apaches  and 
Kiowas — stealing  as  they  did  so  many  horses  and  mules  from  both  Mexicans 
and  Texans — were  always  well  mounted,  and  consequently  in  prime  fighting 
condition.  Knowing  that  international  law  would  not  permit  United  States 
troops  to  pursue  them  into  Mexico,  or  Mexican  troops  to  enter  the  United 
States,  they  hovered  about  the  border  line  and  fled  across  whenever  they 
committed  depredations  on  either  side. 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS.  177 

For  more  than  a  century  the  Comanches  were  at  war  with  the  Spaniards 
living  in  Mexico. 

They  came  near  annihilating  De  Soto's  army. 

The  feeling  between  the  two  people  was  so  bitter  that  there  was  constant 
warfare  between  them,  the  Comanches  making  expeditions  far  into  Mexico 
to  engage  the  Spaniards,  as  well  as  for  booty. 

The  Comanches  were  at  home  everywhere,  either  on  the  plains,  in  the 
mountains,  or  the  timbers,  thus  having  great  advantage  over  their  adver- 
saries. 

Furthermore,  the  supposed  boundary  line  between  the  United  States  and 
Mexico  was  the  Rio  Grande  River.  This  river  is  wide,  and  in  a  great  many 
places  runs  through  a  low  country  with  sandy  soil.  When  there  was  a  great 
freshet — this  usually  occurred  every  year — the  river  would  suddenly  cut  a 
new  channel  for  a  long  distance,  sometimes  taking  two  or  three  miles  of 
territory  that  had  formerly  been  in  the  State  of  Texas,  transferring  it  to  the 
Republic  of  Mexico,  on  the  other  hand,  sometimes  transferring  portions  of 
Mexico  to  the  United  States.  This  did  not  tend  to  weld  the  bond  of  friend- 
ship between  the  Mexicans  living  along  the  river  in  Mexico,  and  the  Texans 
living  on  the  other  side  in  Texas.  For  this  reason  an  intensely  bitter  feel- 
ing existed  between  the  two  peoples;  many  depredations  were  committed  by 
the  Texans  on  the  Mexicans,  by  which  the  former  grew  rich  in  horses, 
mules,  and  other  animals,  the  Mexicans  returning  the  compliment  at  every 
opportunity. 

To  add  to  the  disturbance  the  Mexicans  had  a  daring  leader  of  banditti, 
in  the  person  of  Juan  Nipomecina  Cortina.  This  leader  held  some  kind  of 
commission  in  the  Mexican  army ;  although  freqeuently  ordered  to  the  City 
of  Mexico  by  the  authorities  of  that  Republic,  he  persistently  refused  to  go, 
consequently  he  was  not  brought  to  justice.  He  had  a  large  following, 
composed  of  the  worst  vagabonds  and  cutthroats  that  could  be  found 
in  that  country.  Cortina  himself  grew  to  be  very  wealthy  from  thiev- 
ing, numerous  raids,  and  the  natural  increase  of  his  animals.  He 
was  never  seen  alone,  always  having  with  him  an  armed  escort  of  his 
renegades.  To  him  and  bis  party  must  be  credited  the  killing  of  a 
great  many  people,  the  destruction  of  much  property,  as  well  as  the  loss 
of  many  animals  along  the  Rio  Grande  at  that  time.  Nearly  everybody  in 
the  northern  portion  of  Mexico  was  either  in  his  employ,  or  terrorized  by 
him  or  his  band. 

All  raids  and  depredations  committed  by  them  were  laid  at  the  door 
of  the  Comanche  and  Apache  Indians.  Consequently  they  were  some- 
times charged  with  outrages  of  which  they  were  innocent.  Still,  they 


178  TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG  OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 

were  bad  enough,  and  if  not  guilty  of  all  the  crimes  attributed  to  them  it 
was  only  because  they  lacked  the  opportunity. 

It  was  not  until  about  1871  or  1872  that  Colonel  Randall  S.  McKenzie,  of 
the  4th  U.  S.  Cavalry,  organized  a  body  of  troops  at  Fort  Clark,  and  fol- 
lowed these  Indians  across  the  Rio  Grande  into  Mexico,  where  he  gave  them 
their  first  chastisement.  After  some  hard  marching  he  reached  their  head- 
quarters, surprised  and  defeated  them,  securing  a  large  number  of  stolen 
animals,  and  returned  to  Fort  Clark  with  them. 

Before  this  the  government  of  Mexico  had  been  pressed  by  the  authorities 
at  Washington,  who  demanded  that  measures  be  taken  to  stop  the  raids  of 
the  Comanches,  and  their  whilom  allies,  the  Apaches.  The  governor  of  the 
State  of  Chihuahua  at  that  time  was  Don  Louis  Tarasas.  He  directed  a 
body  of  about  a  hundred  cavalry  to  be  made  up  from  volunteer  Mexican 
rancheros,  to  show  the  United  States  authorities  that  an  effort  was  being 
made  to  check  these  raids.  Captain  Tarasas,  a  brother  of  the  governor,  was 
placed  in  command.  The  troops  crossed  the  Rio  Grande,  between  El  Paso 
and  Los  Crucas,  trailing  the  Indians  to  the  Sierra  Blanca  Mountains,  where 
a  battle  was  fought,  the  Indians  defeating  the  Mexicans,  who  returned  to 
their  homes.  This  was  the  last  effort  made  on  the  part  of  the  Mexican 
Government  toward  suppressing  these  Indians. 

In  the  summer  of  1867,  the  allied  bands  of  Comanches  and  Apaches 
attacked  the  garrison  at  Fort  Lancaster,  situated  on  Live  Oak  Creek,  near 
its  confluence  with  the  Pecos  River.  This  fort  consisted  of  corrals,  officers' 
quarters,  storehouses,  barracks  for  the  troops,  etc. ;  all  were  built  of  sun- 
dried  bricks  called  adobe.  The  troops  and  civilians  garrisoned  at  this  point 
numbered  from  a  hundred  to  a  hundred  and  twenty-five.  The  troops 
belonged  to  the  regular  army,  and  were  well  armed  and  equipped.  The 
Indians  captured  the  animals  belonging  to  the  garrison,  and  actually  lassoed 
and  carried  away  some  of  the  troops  who  were  guarding  the  herds.  The 
bodies  of  the  men  were  found  where  they  had  been  left  after  having  been 
killed  and  mutilated  by  the  Indians. 

About  this  time  Ben  Ficklin  established  the  first  mail  line  from  San 
Antonio  to  El  Paso,  a  distance  of  about  seven  hundred  miles.  The  Indians 
gave  this  line  a  great  deal  of  trouble.  When  it  was  first  established  the 
mail  was  carried  across  the  country  in  a  Concord  buggy,  drawn  by  two 
horses  or  mules;  a  driver  and  guard  made  up  the  outfit.  Once  when  one 
of  the  buggies  was  traveling  between  El  Muerto  and  Eagle  Springs,  a 
Comanche  jumped  from  behind  some  rocks  after  the  buggy  had  passed,  ran 
after  the  vehicle,  and  thrust  his  lance  through  the  bodies  of  the  unsuspecting 
driver  and  guard.  I  mention  this  instance  to  show  the  audacity  of  this 


TWENTY    YEARS   AMONG   OUR    HOSTILE   INDIANS. 


179 


treacherous  people.  They  were  responsible  for  more  loss  of  life  and  prop- 
erty, were  more  ferocious  and  cruel  to  the  inhabitants  of  Texas  than  any 
Indians  within  its  borders.  It  was  by  no  means  uncommon  for  them  to  at- 
tack travelers  and  wagon  trains  of  freight  while  making  tbe  overland  jour- 
ney, and  destroy  them. 

In  those  days  freight  trains  consisted  of  prairie  schooners  (wagons),  each 
capable  of  transporting  seven 
or  eight  tons  of  freight.  Two 
mules  were  hitched  to  the  pole 
of  the  wagon,  and  then  four 
abreast  until  the  entire  team 
was  made  up,  which  some- 
times consisted  of  fourteen, 
eighteen,  and  occasionally 
twenty  -  two  animals.  The 
number  of  wagons  that  made 
up  a  train  varied  from  eight 
to  twenty-five.  It  can  readily 
be  seen  what  a  rich  haul  the 
Indians  made  in  capturing 
one  of  these  large  overland 
outfits,  as  well  as  the  great  loss 
the  owners  sustained  by  its 
destruction. 

At  this  time  the  only  means 
of  transporting  gold  and  silver 
coin  and  bullion  from  Mexico 
into  tbe  United  States  was  by 
wagon  trains.  The  gold  and 
silver  was  placed  in  boxes  of 
convenient  size,  and  shipped 
from  Chihuahua,  Mexico,  to 

San  Antonio,  Texas,  a  distance,  probably,  of  one  thousand  miles, 
requiring  from  thirty-five  to  sixty  days  to  make  the  journey.  The 
route  was  through  a  country  almost  uninhabited  except  by  the  Indians. 
The  trains  carried  great  quantities  of  coin,  sometimes  amounting  to  several 
hundred  thousand  dollars.  One  would  naturally  suppose  that  such  a  large 
sum  of  money,  with  the  animals  and  equipment  belonging  to  the  train, 
would  be  a  tempting  prize  for  the  Comanches,  for  the  wagon  trains  passed 
directl}7  through  their  country.  Strange  to  say,  they  did  not,  to  rny  knowl- 


COMANCHE  WOMAN. 


180  TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG  OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 

edge,  attack  a  train  that  carried  a  large  amount  of   money.      Whether   this 
was  the  result  of  accident  or  design  I  do  not  know. 

At  Howard's  Wells  the  Cornanches  and  their  allies  attacked  a  wagon 
train  loaded  with  stores,  while  in  corral  there,  killing  all  the  trainmen  and 
securing  the  animals.  After  taking  what  stores  they  could  carry  away, 
they  burned  the  rest,  including  the  wagons.  One  of  the  men,  who  was 
badly  wounded  and  left  for  dead,  fell  under  a  wagon  which  was  loaded  with 
salt.  The  hot  salt  fell  upon,  and  burned  him  in  a  frightful  manner,  adding 
intense  agony  to  his  sufferings  until  death  relieved  him.  I  arrived  there 
shortly  afterward,  and  was  much  impressed  by  the  destruction  of  this  ill- 
fated  train  and  the  massacre  of  the  entire  party. 

I  mention  the  fact  of  the  Indians  attacking  this  train  while  in  corral,  be- 
cause it  was  unusual  for  them  to  attack  a  wagon  train  while  in  this  fortified 
position,  the  trainmen  having  a  better  opportunity  to  protect  themselves  by 
using  the  wagons  for  breastworks.  The  usual  manner  of  attacking  a 
wagon  train  was  to  do  so  when  it  was  on  the  move;  then  it  was  extended 
over  the  road  for  a  long  distance,  each  wagon  with  its  team  measuring  prob- 
ably a  hundred  feet,  and  a  train  of  twenty-five  wagons  extending  over  the 
road  not  less  than  half  a  mile.  The  wily  savages  would  conceal  themselves 
behind  bushes  and  rocks  along  the  route  in  advance  of  the  slowly  moving 
train ;  at  a  given  signal  they  would  attack  each  wagon  separately,  making 
the  whole  train  an  easy  prey. 

When  a  train  was  in  corral  and  was  attacked  by  Indians,  the  assault  was 
usually  made  to  secure  the  animals.  When  these  were  quietly  grazing  at  a 
distance  from  the  train  the  Indians  would  suddenly  rush  upon  them  with 
frightful  yells,  flaping  their  blankets,  stampeding  the  terrified  animals. 
To  prevent  this,  when  a  train  was  in  corral  the  mules  were  usually  side- 
lined or  hobbled.  Side-lining  is  the  fastening  of  the  hind  and  forefoot  on 
the  same  side  of  the  animal  together;  side-lines  had  a  chain  between  the 
feet  to  prevent  the  Indians  from  cutting  them  and  releasing  the  animals. 

In  addition  to  this  a  bell-mare  usually  accompanied  the  train.  This  mare 
was  gray  or  white,  with  a  bell  around  her  neck.  She  was  securely  held  by 
one  of  the  herdsmen,  and  it  was  difficult  to  separate  mules  from  a  bell-mare. 
In  this  manner  the  animals  were  sent  from  the  train  in  a  herd  for  food  and 
water,  being  guarded  by  a  number  of  armed  herders.  Sometimes,  when  the 
Indians  were  particularly  anxious  to  secure  animals,  they  attacked  the  herds, 
killed  the  herdsmen,  removed  the  side-lines  and  hobbles,  then  seizing  the 
bell-mare  and  as  many  animals  as  possible,  rapidly  made  off  with  them. 

Hobbling  of  animals  is  fastening  the  two  forefeet  together  by  the  same 
means  as  the  side  lines,  except  that  the  chain  between  the  feet  is  shorter. 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG  OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 


181 


CHAPTER  XIX. 

THE  COMANCHES  CONTINUED— PUNISHMENT  INFLICTED  ON  THEIR  WOMEN- 
STEALING  CONSIDERED  A  FINE  ART. 

Comanche  Home  Life — A  Nation  of  Thieves — Polygamy  common  among  them — Miser- 
able Women — Never  known  to  Marry  outside  of  their  own  People — What  made  them 
unusually  Virtuous — Severe  Penalty  for  Unfaithfulness — Slitting  the  Nose — Self-in- 
flicted W^ounds — Mourning  for  the  Dead — Superstitious  Healing  of  the  Sick — Their 
Medicines — Curing  the  Bite  of  a  Rattlesnake — Capturing  Wild  Horses — Killing  Wild 
Turkeys— Their  Scanty  Clothing — A  Filthy  and  Repulsive  People — Feats  of  Horse- 
manship—Cutting the  Hamstring  of  a  Running  Animal — Mothers  at  Twelve  Years  of 
Age— Making  up  a  Party  for  Plunder  and  Pillage — Living  in  Rocks  and  Caves — Expert 
Thieves — Stealing  considered  a  Mark  of  Honor. 

WHAT  little  home  life  the  Co- 
manches  had  was  congenial. 
Like  the  majority  of  Indians, 
they  were  kind  to  each  other. 
They  were  polygamous,  each 
family  living  in  a  separate 
habitation.  Their  lodges  were 
miserable  affairs  made  of  poles, 
over  which  tanned  skins  or 
cloth  were  drawn.  They  were 
not  advanced  in  the  ruder  arts 
beyond  other  Indians.  For 
supplies  they  depended  more 
largely  on  their  ability  to  steal, 
than  on  honest  efforts  of  their 
own.  Their  camp  effects  were 
few ;  even  these  were  generally 
secured  by  theft. 

A  Comanche  woman  did  not 
become  the  wife  of  a  Mexican, 
a  white  man,  or  an  Indian  of  another  nation,  except  after  capture.  Although 
miserable,  dirty  and  ignorant,  the  women  were  chaste,  possibly  from  fear  of 


MOUNTED  COMANCHE  WOMAN. 


182  TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE    INDIANS. 

punishment;  for  the  penalty  for  infidelity  was  terribly  severe.  For  unfaith- 
fulness the  offending  woman,  while  being  securely  held,  had  a  knife  inserted 
in  the  cartilage  at  the  end  of  the  nose,  which  was  then  split  to  the  eyes.  The 
husband  forced  this  wound  to  be  kept  open  until  healed,  to  prevent  its  unit- 
ing. A  woman  so  marked  presented  a  horrible  appearance. 

They  had  no  religion  or  worship  above  a  rude  superstition.  They  believed 
in  the  Great  Spirit,  but  seemed  to  take  no  interest  whatever  in  learning  how 
they  came  here,  or  in  speculating  about  the  future  state.  They  lived  only 
for  the  present. 

When  mourning  for  the  dead,  the  Comanches  were  very  demonstrative. 
The  period  of  mourning  lasted  from  three  to  fifteen  days.  During  this  time 
the  family  and  friends  of  the  dead  visited  the  burial  place  of  the  deceased 
and  showed  their  grief  in  various  ways.  The  principal  manifestation  of  sor- 
row was  by  slashing  their  arms,  legs  and  bodies  with  knives.  Sometimes 
the  blood  ran  down  their  bodies  in  streams  from  head  to  foot  from  these 
self-inflicted  wounds.  With  them  the  severest  wounds,  indicated  the  great- 
est intensity  of  grief.  On  the  persons  of  old  Comanche  women  could  often  be 
seen  great  soars  of  wounds  made  on  these  occasions.  At  mournings  the  men 
pmoked  to  the  Great  Spirit,  to  whom  they  also  offered  a  prayer.  The  first 
puff  of  smoke  was  to  the  Great  Spirit,  the  second  to  the  sun,  and  the  third 
to  the  earth.  During  the  period  of  mourning,  whenever  they  ate  the  first 
bite  was  offered  to  the  Great  Spirit  for  the  benefit  of  the  dead.  Then  some  of 
the  women  buried  a  portion  of  the  remaining  food  in  the  earth,  that  it  might 
be  eaten  by  the  spirit  of  the  departed. 

They  had  no  medicine  men,  but  performed  all  the  rites  of  this  class  them- 
selves. In  addition  to  their  superstitious  faith  in  their  ability  to  heal  the 
sick,  they  made  medicine  from  roots  and  herbs  for  the  treatment  of  bites  of 
venomous  insects  and  reptiles,  which  were  very  numerous  in  their  country. 
They  claimed  to  be  able  to  cure  the  bite  of  a  rattlesnake,  but  aside  from 
cutting  out  the  injured  part  at  once,  either  by  the  person  bitten  or  by  some 
one  else,  then  sucking  the  wound,  their  medicines  were  of  little  avail. 

They  resorted  to  conjuring,  singing  weird  chants,  making  all  sorts  of 
noises  and  hideous  displays  to  drive  away  disease.  Childbirth  with  them, 
even  when  the  mother  was  only  twelve  to  fourteen  years  of  age,  was  a  mat- 
ter of  little  moment.  Sometimes  within  three  or  four  hours  after  the  first 
pains  of  labor  the  child  was  born,  and  the  woman  was  going  about  as  though 
nothing  unusual  had  occurred. 

The  country  inhabited  by  the  Comanches  was,  after  that  of  the  Sioux,  the 
largest,  and  more  abundantly  supplied  with  game,  wild  horses,  fruits,  ber- 
ries, and  nuts  than  that  of  any  other  nation  of  Indians.  Their  hunting 


COMANCHE  LODGES. 


Twenty  Years  Among:  Our  Hostil"  Indian'--. 


Pape  183 


184  TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 

ground  covered  the  northern  portions  of  the  States  of  Tamaulipas,  Nuevo 
Leon,  Coahuila,  and  Chihuahua  in  Mexico,  and  Texas  from  the  Brazos 
River  on  the  north  to  the  Rio  Grande  on  the  south.  Within  this  vast  area 
wild  horses  were  abundant.  Here,  also,  the  buffalo  roamed  in  vast  num- 
bers in  winter,  besides  several  kinds  of  deer,  bear,  and  wild  turkeys  in  great 
abundance.  The  latter  lived  principally  on  the  pecan  nut,  and  were  the 
finest  turkeys  I  have  ever  seen. 

The  Indians'  mode  of  killing  wild  turkeys  was  simple  and  effective, 
though  it  could  hardly  be  called  sportsmanlike.  The  birds  roost  night  after 
night  in  the  same  tree.  After  discovering  a  roost  the  Indians  visited  the 
tree  at  night,  and,  with  bow  and  arrow,  drop  the  birds  one  by  one,  always 
shooting  the  one  nearest  the  ground.  The  turkeys  looking  up  for  the  trou- 
ble, would  not  fly  so  long  as  they  were  not  disturbed  from  above. 

The  climate  of  their  territory  was  warm,  and  they  wore  but  little  cloth- 
ing. A  blanket  or  robe,  belt,  and  breechcloth  were  indispensable  parts  of  a 
man's  dress;  these  they  usually  had.  The  portions  of  their  bodies  requiring 
the  most  protection  were  the  feet  and  legs,  as  the  ground  in  this  region 
becomes  hot  in  summer;  in  many  places  it  is  covered  with  sharp  stones,  and 
overgrown  with  thorny  plants  and  prickly  undergrowth.  The  dress  of  the 
women  consisted  of  a  blanket  or  skin,  hanging  to  the  knees  from  a  belt 
around  the  waist.  This,  with  the  foot  covering  and  leggings,  made  up  their 
apparel. 

Comancho  men  or  women  took  but  little  care  of  their  hair,  letting  it  grow 
long  and  hang  over  the  shoulders  and  backs,  never  washing  it,  and  it  was 
in  consequence  filled  with  vermin.  On  the  whole,  the  Conunches  presented 
a  repulsive  and  disgusting  appearance.  Both  sexes  tattooed  their  faces  after 
the  style  of  Indian  art.  They  were  fond  of  painting  their  bodies,  and  fre- 
quently used  mud  of  various  colors  in  this  ornamentation,  striping  their 
faces,  foreheads  and  cheeks.  When  paint  was  abundant,  and  the  Comarlche 
was  enabled  to  indulge  his  fancy  for  personal  decoration  of  this  kind,  he 
could  make  himself  disgustingly  hideous-looking. 

In  cold  weather,  or  during  a  norther  (a  cold  wind  and  snowstorm  from 
the  north),  they  wore  a  buffalo  robe  or  blanket  over  what  little  clothing  they 
had,  squatting  around  the  fire  in  vain  efforts  to  keep  warm.  During  these 
cold  blasts  they  were  extremely  miserable  and  suffered  greatly. 

The  Comanches  differed  largely  from  other  Indians  in  characteristics, 
customs  and  sports.  They  were  expert  and  daring  horsemen;  and  practiced 
riding  and  racing  almost  daily  when  not  on  the  hunt  or  warpath.  Horses 
were  abundant  in  their  locality,  and  they  were  almost  a  race  of  Centaurs. 
The  feats  of  horsemanship  performed  by  them  were  equal  to,  if  they  did  not 


TWENTY    YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS.  185 

excel,  anything  achieved  in  this  line  by  any  other  Indian  tribe  or  nation. 
On  foot  they  were  slow  in  their  movements,  but  when  mounted,  they  seemed 
to  have  undergone  a  complete  transformation.  The  Comanche  off  his  horse 
seemed  out  of  his  element. 

When  on  a  buffalo  hunt  the  Comanches  would  ride  close  to  the. hind  legs 
of  the  fleeing  animal,  and  with  a  knife,  cut  its  hamstring,  compelling  the 
helpless  animal  to  fall.  The  women  and  children  then  attacked  the  pros- 
trate beast,  cutting  it  up,  almost  alive.  When  butchering  animals,  they 
drank  the  warm  blood,  and  when  hungry,  ate  the  liver  and  entrails  raw. 
At  best  they  ate  their  meat  only  partly  cooked.  The  meat  secured  on  one  of 
these  hunts  was  cut  into  strips,  dried  in  the  sun  for  use  as  occasion  required. 

It  was  not  an  uncommon  thing  for  them  to  eat  their  horses  and  mules,  or 
the  meat  of  an  animal  which  had  been  dead  for  days. 

Notwithstanding  their  low  order  of  intelligence,  the  men  were  brave,  and 
were  expert  in  handling  their  weapons.  During  battle  the  horses  were  kept 
in  continual  motion.  When  in  large  numbers,  they  formed  themselves  into 
subdivisions,  charging  the  enemy  almost  simultaneously  from  every  direc- 
tion, running  away  with  lightning  rapidity,  and  re-forming,  charging  again 
and  again  in  the  same  manner.  It  required  courage  and  vigilance  to  with- 
stand their  attacks.  Their  arms  consisted  of  bow  and  arrow,  lance,  shield, 
and  modern  firearms. 

When  an  important  subject  was  to  be  considered,  every  person  was 
invited  to  the  talk,  the  warriors  doing  the  talking.  At  these  talks  the 
affairs  of  the  tribe  were  discussed  to  a  conclusion. 

Comanche  females  became  wives  at  an  early  age,  and  mothers  of 
twelve  and  fourteen  years  were  common.  The  women  were  compelled  to  do 
all  the  drudgery  of  the  camp,  and  treated  cruelly.  They  looked  old  and 
haggard  at  thirty-five  and  forty  years.  A  Comanche  could  have  as  many 
wives  as  he  could  buy.  He  could  also  repudiate  them  at  any  time,  and  take 
back  the  property  he  had  paid  for  them.  Should  a  wife  abandon  her  hus- 
band, the  latter  was  considered  disgraced,  and  the  stain  could  be  wiped  out 
only  by  his  killing  some  of  her  relatives. 

On  reaching  the  age  of  puberty  the  names  of  the  children  were  changed, 
the  diminutive  or  pet  name  was  dropped,  and  a  name  more  dignified  or  suit- 
able to  the  age  of  the  person  adopted. 

Drunkenness  was  rare,  although  they  made  a  strong  intoxicating  liquor 
from  the  mescal,  a  plant  which  grows  wild  in  that  country  and  iy  plentiful. 

The  Comanches  were  nomadic,  rarely  remaining  more  than  a  week  or  two 
in  the  same  place.  They  frequently  lived  in  caves  when  in  a  mountainous 
or  rocky  region.  The  women  gathered  the  mesquit  bean,  pinon  nut,  the 


186  TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 

agave  and  other  fruits  that  grew  wild  in  that  country;  these  they  used  for 
food. 

During  the  winter  when  the  buffalo  migrated  into  their  country,  everybody, 
men,  women  and  children,  joined  in  the  chase.  They  were  skillful  buffalo 
hunters,  and  rode  fearlessly  into  a  herd,  killing  the  auimals  in  large  num- 
bers with  bows  and  arrows  and  lances.  When  in  Mexico,  they  readily  sup- 
plied themselves  with  an  abundance  of  fresh  meat  by  raiding  the  flocks  of 
sheep  and  goats  owned  by  Mexicans,  or  by  stealing  cattle. 

Among  them  the  acquisition  of  other  people's  property  by  theft  was  con- 
sidered a  mark  of  distinguished  honor.  The  warrior  who  returned  from  a 
raiding  expedition  with  the  greatest  amount  of  plunder  was  not  only  re- 
garded as  the  most  courageous  and  skillful  hrave,  but  was  highly  respected 
for  his  success  as  a  thief.  An  old  Comanche  warrior,  in  speaking  of  the 
good  qualities  of  his  two  sons,  capped  the  climax  of  praise,  by  declaring  that 
they  understood  horse  stealing  better  than  any  other  two  young  men  of  the 
tribe.  In  their  predatory  expeditions  they  feared  only  one  disgrace,  that  of 
returning  without  plunder. 

From  infancy  they  were  trained  to  war.  Each  warrior  kept  a  war  horse, 
which  was  chosen  for  its  swiftness.  When  raiding  a  settlement  they 
descended  upon  it  with  surprising  suddenness,  vanishing  as  quickly  as  they 
came.  At  this  time  the  Comanches  had  more  arms  than  any  wild  Indians 
in  the  Southwest.  Their  territory  was  so  vast  and  adjoined  that  of  so  many 
people  having  modern  firearms  that  they  easily  secured  a  liberal  supply 
from  their  neighbors,  both  Texans  and  Mexicans.  Their  principal  difficulty 
was  in  securing  ammunition. 

They  were  governed  by  a  chief  whose  term  of  authority  depended  on  gen- 
eral consent.  He  was  their  leader  in  war,  and  presided  over  their  councils 
in  peace;  but  if  proven  guilty  of  cowardice  or  incapacity  was  at  once 
deposed. 

The  Comanches  counted  by  their  fingers,  ten  being  the  highest  number 
they  were  able  to  grasp;  this  was  used  in  the  same  manner  that  we  use  our 
hundred ;  thus,  two  tens,  three  tens,  four  tens,  and  so  on. 

The  Comanches  were  nearly  always  in  friendly  relations  with  the  Kiowas 
on  the  north,  as  well  as  the  Lipans  and  Apaches  on  the  west.  All  these 
Indians  held  the  Mexicans  in  contempt,  frequently  allying  to  enter  their 
country  and  make  war  on  them.  When  a  body  of  any  of  these  Indians  en- 
tered Mexico,  they  raided  everything  in  their  path,  seizing  what  they  could 
carry  away,  and  destroying  what  they  could  not. 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 


187 


CHAPTER  XX. 

THE  APACHES— APPALLING  RECORD— THEIR  STEALTH  AND  CUNNING. 

In  the  Country  of  the  Apaches — Shaving  off  the  Nose  of  a  Woman — Horrible  Mutila- 
tions— Apache  Depredations — The  Ishmaelites  of  all  Men — Their  Repulsive  and 
Hideous  Appearance — Their  Small  and  Peculiar  Feet — Painting  Themselves  with 
Mud— An  Unspeakably  Dirty  People — Swarming  with  Vermin — Murderous  War- 
riors— Art  of  Concealing  their  Persons — How  they  Made  Themselves  Resemble  a 
Rock — Looking  like  a  Bunch  of  Grass — Mistaken  for  a  Bush  or  Shrub — Their 
Stealth  and  Cunning — On  the  War  Path— Return  of  a  War  Party— Thievish  and 
Cruel  Propensities — An  Appalling  Record — Driving  Out  Ten  Thousand  Settlers — 
Hiding  in  the  Dense  Jungles. 

THE    Apaches    were    the    most     southerly 
tribe  of  the  Athabaska  nation. 

It  is  more  than  probable  that  at  one  time 
they  lived  among  the  other  tribes  of  this 
family  in  the  far  north,  and  that  they  were 
driven  by  other  Indians  whose  territory 
they  entered,  further  south  to  their  present 
locality. 

They  have  been  so  long  in  their  present 
territory  that  neither  they  or  any  one  else 
can  give  reliable  accounts  of  having  been 
elsewhere.  Their  headquarters  were  in 
Arizona,  anywhere  between  the  Gila  Range 
and  the  Mogollon  Mountains.  They  were 
an  itinerant  people,  and  in  habits,  appearance  and  characteristics  closely 
resembled  the  Comanches.  Their  depredations  extended  as  far  north  as  the 
Wasatch  Mountains,  and  they  frequently  made  raids  as  far  as  the  Brazos 
River  in  Texas. 

The  A  paches,  with  the  Comanches,  were  responsible  for  the  southern  por- 
tions of  Texas,  New  Mexico,  and  Arizona  having  been  so  long  closed  to 
white  settlers.  In  their  raids  they  destroyed  everything  in  their  path, 


LOCO,  CHIEF   OF   THE   WARM  SPRING 
APACHES. 


188  TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 

secured  all  the  booty  tbey  could,  attacked  villages,  settlements,  and  wagon 
trains,  killing  hunters,  miners  and  settlers,  capturing  their  entire  belong- 
ings. If  the  booty  was  more  than  they  could  carry  away  the  excess  was 
burned. 

Their  habits  and  home  life  were  of  the  lowest  order.  Though  polygamous 
they  were  very  rigorous  in  regard  to  the  fidelity  of  their  wives.  Any  infrac- 
tion of  this  law  was  punished  by  shaving  off  the  nose  of  the  offending  woman 
close  to  the  face.  A  woman  thus  mutilated  presented  a  revolting  appear- 
ance. But,  happily,  there  were  few  of  them  who  had  undergone  such  a 
severe  mutilation ;  this  affords  convincing  evidence  that  the  Apache  women 
were  generally  faithful. 

The  Apache  was  distinguished  from  all  other  Indians  by  his  thievish  pro- 
pensities. The  Comanche  was  bad  enough  in  this  respect,  but  the  Apache 
could  outdo  him.  He  was  a  born  thief,  and  his  education  in  this  respect 
was  never  neglected.  The  Apache  would  undergo  toil  and  danger  to  secure, 
by  stealing  or  raiding,  the  articles  he  could  have  more  easily  obtained  by 
hunting  or  working  like  his  northern  brothers,  the  Pueblos.  They  were  the 
Ishmaelites  of  Indians,  the  inveterate  enemy  of  all  men,  red  or  white, 
except  when  they  allied  with  the  Comanches  against  a  common  foe. 

It  was  rare  to  see  a  pleasing  countenance  even  among  their  women. 
They  had  thick,  rusty,  black  hair,  and  a  mongrel  cast  of  features.  Their 
eyes  were  sharp  and  piercing. 

A  notable  peculiarity  was  their  remarkably  small  feet,  and  the  fact  that 
the  great  toe  was  widely  separated  from  the  others.  This  was  the  result  of 
the  children  wearing  sandals  made  of  thick  hide,  which  were  fastened  to  the 
feet  by  strong  rawhide  thongs,  the  larger  thong  passing  between  the  great 
toe  and  the  next. 

They  painted  themselves  more  profusely  and  hideously  than  any  other 
Indians,  using  a  great  variety  of  colors  in  doing  this.  They  sometimes 
plastered  their  heads  and  bodies  with  mud,  both  as  a  protection  against  the 
heat  of  the  sun,  and  as  a  preventative  against  vermin.  They  often  orna- 
mented their  headdresses  with  deer  hoofs,  fishbones,  shells,  beads,  and  porcu- 
pine quills.  They  were  good  horsemen,  and  experts  in  the  use  of  the  lasso. 
At  the  time  I  was  among  them  their  arms  consisted  of  the  bow  and  arrow, 
lance,  tomahawk,  and  old-fashioned  guns  and  pistols. 

When  hunting,  they  covered  themselves  with  skins  of  various  animals, 
and  by  imitating  their  movements,  managed  to  approach  the  game  within 
shooting  distance.  They  ate  every  portion  of  the  animal,  the  entrails  being 
considered  the  daintiest  part.  Usually  they  half-cooked  their  meat,  but 
sometimes  it  was  eaten  raw.  Although  they  were  gluttons  of  the  most  pro- 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS.  189 

nounced  type,  and  could  consume  an  enormous  quantity  of  food  at  a  time, 
they  could  also,  if  occasion  required,  go  without  eating  for  an  incredibly 
long  time. 

They  were  unspeakably  dirty,  both  in  person  and  habit.  They  had  a 
natural  antipathy  to  water  as  a  means  of  cleansing  themselves ;  their  lodges 
reeked  with  filth  and  swarmed  with  vermin.  Offal,  as  well  as  the  remains 
of  dead  animals,  was  allowed  to  remain  in  and  about  their  camps  until  the 
odors  became  almost  unbearable. 

Their  fighting  was  invariably  of  a  murderous  character.  They  rarely 
attacked  an  enemy  unless  success  seemed  certain.  They  would  lie  patiently 
in  ambush  for  days  to  surprise  an  enemy,  and  at  the  first  opportunity  sneak 
upon  him  under  the  cover  of  night.  They  were  trained  from  youth  to  theft, 
murder,  and  cruelty,  and  practiced  these  at  every  opportunity. 

The  Apache  was  an  adept  in  the  art  of  concealing  his  person.  He  some- 
times covered  himself  with  a  blanket,  or  sprinkled  earth  on  his  body,  then 
placing  himself  among  the  rocks  and  boulders,  remain  as  silent  and  immov- 
able as  his  surroundings,  so  that  an  inexperienced  person  often  passed 
within  a  few  yards  of  him  without  detecting  his  presence.  Again,  he  cov- 
ered himself  with  grass,  and  lying  on  the  ground,  would  so  closely  resem- 
ble a  shrub  or  bush  as  to  be  easily  mistaken  for  either. 

When  once  they  entered  on  the  warpath  they  fought  with  deadly  feroc- 
ity. They  traversed  a  large  extent  of  territory,  knew  every  portion  of  it, 
and  utilized  all  the  strategical  advantages  of  the  situation.  When  ap- 
proaching a  settlement,  village,  or  intended  victims,  they  swept  upon  them 
with  the  fury  of  a  cyclone,  securing  all  the  animals  and  plunder  they  could 
carry  away,  after  deliberately  killing  all  who  were  so  unfortunate  as  to  be 
within  their  reach,  then  mutilating  the  bodies  of  the  victims  in  every  fiendish 
manner,  leaving  them  in  the  heat  of  the  almost  tropical  sun  to  rot,  or  be 
eaten  by  wild  animals.  I  have  seen  the  bodies  of  women  and  children  who 
had  been  killed  by  these  diabolical  wretches,  mangled  in  the  most  horrible 
manner ;  and  have  taken  as  many  as  fifteen  arrows  from  the  body  of  one  of 
the  victims.  These  bloodthirsty  wretches  killed  people  merely  for  the  sake 
of  killing.  This  did  not,  as  a  rule,  extend  to  their  captives  from  Mexico;  but 
the  latter  would  have  preferred  death  rather  than  suffer  what  they  did  at  the 
hands  of  these  miscreants. 

Before  entering  on  a  marauding  expedition  the  families  of  the  warriors 
were  concealed  in  some  of  the  most  inaccessible  of  the  mountain  fastnesses, 
the  paths  to  which  were  known  only  to  themselves.  When  they  returned 
laden  with  booty  and  elated  by  victory,  a  period  of  feasting  and  rejoicing 
followed ;  but  if  they  returned  empty-handed  thejT  were  met  by  the  women 


190 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 


with  reproaches  and  jeers.  When  pursued  too  closely  they  killed  the  cap- 
tives, and  even  the  horses  and  cattle  that  they  had  stolen  rather  than  allow 
them  to  fall  into  other  hands. 

If  one  Apache  killed  another  he  was  not  punished  for  it  by  the  tribe,  but 
the  nearest  relatives  of  the  dead  man  might  kill  the  murderer. 

When  a  girl  arrived  at  a  marriageable  age  the  event  was  celebrated  with 
feasting  and  dancing,  during  which  time  the  girl  was  isolated  in  a  lodge; 
at  the  conclusion  of  the  ceremony  she  was  divested  of  her  eyebrows.  A 
marriage  was  sometimes  celebrated  with  a  feast  of  horseflesh. 

The  warriors  considered 
it  beneath  their  dignity  to 
do  anything  but  bunt  and 
fight.  The  women  were 
even  compelled  to  saddle 
the  horses  for  the  braves 
when  going  on  a  chase  or 
raid. 

As  far  back  as  1762  the 
Mexican  Government  Re- 
ports  state  that  the 
Apaches  alone  had  de- 
stroyed and  depopulated 
one  hundred  and  seventy- 
four  towns  and  stations. 
It  has  been  estimated  that 
the  Apaches  killed  or 
drove  out  of  the  country 
in  recent  years,  more  than 
ten  thousand  settlers.  The 
Jesuits  in  the  early  days 
built  missions  all  through 

the  northern  and  central  portions  of  Texas  as  well  as  New  Mexico  and  the 
northern  portion  of  Arizona,  some  of  which  are  at  present  standing,  although 
in  a  dilapidated  condition.  The  Jesuits  were  never  able  to  establish  a  mis- 
sion successfully  among  the  Apaches,  nor  did  their  teachings  have  any  effect 
upon  them. 

After  the  acquisition  of  the  territory  they  roamed  over  the  government  of 
the  United  States  with  its  handful  of  troops  undertook  to  exercise  supervision 
over  them;  but  the  Indians  were  so  refractory  that  nothing  could  be  done. 
While  the  government  did  not  abandon  its  project  or  efforts,  it  made 


TYPICAL  APACHE  WARRIOR. 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS.  191 

no  progress  in  subduing  them.  Some  portions  of  their  country  were  over- 
grown with  chaparral  as  well  as  various  kinds  of  undergrowth,  such  as  cat- 
claw  bushes  and  other  thorny  plants. 

These  grew  so  dense  in  places  that  not  a  blade  of  grass  grew  under  them. 
These  spots  were  the  hiding  places  of  the  Apaches  after  their  raids.  It  was 
impossi  ble  to  penetrate  these  jungles  without  the  aid  of  a  sharp  instrument,  on 
account  of  the  interminable  entanglement  of  the  undergrowth. 

The  Apaches  wore  shoes  made  of  flint  hide  that  successfully  resisted  the 
sharpest  thorns  or  cat-claws,  and  served  also  as  a  protection  against  the  bite 
of  the  black  ant,  the  scorpion,  the  centipede,  the  wingless  bumblebee,  the 
chigoe,  popularly  called  "chigger"  or  "jigger,"  the  rattlesnake,  and  other 
venomous  reptiles  and  bugs  that  infest  that  region.  Their  legs  were  also 
protected  by  a  thick  pair  of  leggings  made  from  flint  hide,  with  the  hairy 
side  out;  for  in  walking,  and  especially  riding  rapidly  through  cat-claw 
bushes  and  thornj7  chaparral,  without  this  protection  the  legs  of  the  rider 
would  in  a  short  time  be  a  mass  of  raw  flesh.  Horses  when  ridden  rapidly 
through  this  country  instinctively  jumped  cat-claw  bushes  whenever  possi- 
ble, otherwise  fifteen  minutes  of  travel  through  this  undergrowth  would  tear 
the  skin  of  their  legs  into  shreds. 

Living  in  a  hot  climate,  under  an  almost  tropical  sun,  the  Apaches  re- 
quired, and  had  but  little  clothing.  The  dress  of  the  men  consisted  of  a 
visor  or  shade  for  the  eyes,  made  of  flint  hide  and  fitted  over  the  head  to 
afford  protection  against  the  sun,  and  a  Navajo  or  other  blanket,  which  they 
had  no  doubt  stolen  on  some  thieving  expedition.  The  women  wore  a  piece 
of  blanket  around  their  waists  extending  to  the  knee,  and  had  the  same 
kind  of  protection  for  the  feet  and  legs  as  the  men.  Their  habitations  were 
merely  low  bushes  or  shrubs  drawn  together  at  the  top  and  covered  with 
cloth,  blanket  or  hide,  affording  slight  protection  against  the  sun  and  in- 
clement weather. 

The  heat  in  that  semi-tropical  climate  is  intense.  When  the  wind  blows 
in  summer  it  is  like  the  blast  from  a  furnace;  it  parches  all  vegetation  and 
dries  up  the  ground,  leaving  great  cracks  in  it  until  the  rainy  season  sets  in 
for  July,  August,  and  September.  The  troops  had  a  great  horror  of  being 
stationed  in  this  country  on  account  of  its  climate. 


192 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 


CHAPTER  XXI. 

THE  APACHES  CONTINUED— ELUSIVE,  CUNNING  AND  DARING  INDIANS— EX 
PERT  TRAIL  FOLLOWERS— INDIAN  LIFE  IN  TEXAS,  NEW  MEXICO,  AND 
ARIZONA. 

Expert  Trailers — Detecting  Signs — Concealing  their  own  Trail — Their  Cunning  in  eluding 
Pursuit — Apache  Cruelty  to  Captives — Fate  of  Captive  White  Boys  and  Girls — 
How  the  Apaches  Lived — Great  Aversion  to  Telling  their  Names — Queer  Super- 
stitions— Burying  their  Dead  at  Night — Their  Fear  of  a  Dead  Body — Traveling  One 
Hundred  Miles  a  Day  on  Foot — Marvelous  Endurance — Victorious  in  Capturing 
Trains — Raiding  Settlers — Bones  of  Victims — An  Able  but  Vicious  Chief — The 
Deadly  Fear  He  Inspired — Attacking  Ranch  and  Cattle  Men — Dreadful  Fate  of  a 
Mexican  Captive — Stripped,  and  Staked  out  on  the  Ground  over  an  Ant  Hill — A 
Horrible  Death — Midnight  Groans  and  Screams — The  Story  of  a  Noted  Chief's  First 
Raid  as  Told  by  Himself. 

FOR  many  years  after  the  acquisition 
of  Texas  by  the  United  States  the 
Apaches  had  their  headquarters  and 
chief  hunting  ground  in  the  San  Carlos 
Mountains  in  Arizona  and  New  Mexico, 
and  it  was  impossible  either  for  the 
United  States  or  Mexico  to  chastise  them 
successfully.  They  were  as  elusive  when 
pursued  as  they  were  daring  when  attack- 
ing. 

In  following  a  trail  an  Apache  could 
detect  signs  which,  to  an  expert  white 
man,  were  invisible.  In  this  respect  he 
surpassed  all  other  Indians.  In  en- 
deavoring to  escape  he  would  cover,  or 

break  his  trail  so  that  it  was  almost  impossible  to  follow  him.  He  would 
double  in  his  track,  twist,  turn,  and  circle  around  in  the  most  inexplicable 
and  cunning  way.  Sometimes  the  party  would  break  up  or  scatter,  only  to 
meet  miles  away  at  some  point  previously  agreed  upon.  They  were  endowed 


WARM   SPRING   APACHE. 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG  OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS.  193 

with  great  physical  endurance,  could  travel  on  foot  surprising  distances  in 
an  incredibly  short  time,  and  penetrate  into  almost  inaccessible  recesses. 
When  broken  up  into  parties  each  band  left  signs  for  the  information  of  others 
which  their  pursuers  could  not  read,  or,  as  a  usual  thing,  could  not  notice. 
When  on  the  warpath  they  carried  with  them  the  least  possible  quantity  of 
impedimenta.  They  depended  for  subsistence  on  what  the  country  afforded, 
or  on  what  they  could  steal. 

After  capturing  their  enemies  they  usually  dispatched  them  ;  if  they  had 
time  and  opportunity,  they  frequently  did  so  with  the  most  fiendish  cruelty, 
though  when  white  boys  and  girls  were  captured  who  were  old  and  strong 
enough  to  endure  the  hardships  of  Indian  life,  they  were  sometimes  adopted 
into  the  tribes. 

The  Apaches  had  a  great  advantage  over  other  Indians  in  resisting  the 
white  man, — they  could  procure  food  far  more  easily  than  they.  The 
Indians  of  more  northern  latitudes  lived  almost  exclusively  on  animal  food, 
and  could,  when  driven  to  places  where  this  kind  of  food  was  not  easily 
obtainable,  be  starved  into  submission. 

Not  so  with  the  Apaches.  When  driven  to  the  mountains  they  found  an 
abundance  of  deer  and  other  animals  to  suppljTthem  with  food  ;  when  on  the 
southern  plains,  on  either  side  of  the  border  line,  they  subsisted  on  the  vege- 
tables, fruits,  and  esculent  roots  which  grew  abundantly  there.  The  mescal, 
or  agave,  the  fruit  of  the  Spanish  bayonet,  themesquit  bean,  the  giant  cactus 
fruit,  acorns,  nuts,  and  wild  potatoes  were  all  eaten  by  them.  They  could 
live  on  cacti  if  need  be,  and  accustomed  themselves  to  go  from  forty-eight  to 
seventy-two  hours  without  water.  This  they  did  by  placing  pebbles  in  the 
mouth  undar  the  tongue  to  promote  the  flow  of  saliva,  also  by  sucking  moist- 
ure from  pieces  of  cactus.  They  always  found  some  means  of  subsistence 
and  were  at  home  anywhere. 

An  Apache  would  not  tell  his  name,  but  he  would  permit  any  one  else  to 
tell  it  for  him.  They  usually  buried  their  dead  at  night;  they  had  a  super- 
stitious fear  of  a  dead  body,  never  going  near  one  when  it  could  be  avoided. 
They  did  not  like  to  speak  on  the  subject  of  death,  and  rarely  mentioned  the 
names  of  the  dead ;  though  the  name  of  a  warrior  who  had  achieved  distinc- 
tion or  performed  some  special  act  cf  bravery,  might,  if  sufficient  'time  had 
elapsed  since  his  death,  be  conferred  on  a  near  relative.  They  were  very 
superstitious,  hence  the  medicine  men  exercised  great  influence  among  them. 

There  was  less  uniformity  of  type  among  the  Apaches  than  in  many  other 
Indian  nations.  Some  were  tall,  sinewy,  and  athletic-looking,  while  others 
were  short  and  broad-chested.  But  all  possessed  wonderful  physical  endur- 
ance, as  every  old  cavalry  officer  who  has  had  occasion  to  pursue  them  can 


194 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG  OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 


testify.  Their  animals  also  had  great  endurance.  Having  an  almost  un- 
limited territory  to  roam  over,  and  each  warrior  having  from  three  to  five 
well -trained  horses  or  mules  that  lived  on  the  grass  and  underbrush,  <md 
carried  nothing  but  the  riders,  their  arms  and  ammunition,  consequently 
they  could  travel  long  distances  each  day.  Knowing  every  water  hole  and 
every  foot  of  ground  of  the  vast  country  over  which  they  committed  depre- 
dations, they  traveled  the  most  direct  route  from  place  to  place. 

They  also  knew  about  the  location  of  almost  every  wagon 
train,  or  bodies  of  men  or  animals  in  their  country;  often 
waiting  for  their  intended  victims  to  reach  a  certain  locality 
before  attacking  them. 

At  the  first  indication  of  pursuit  they  dispersed  in  every 
direction,  each  party  riding  in  Indian  file,  one  after  another, 
leaving  but  one  path,  so  that  it  was  impossible  for  those  in 
pursuit  to  estimate  the  number  of  Indians  in  each  broken 
party. 

Occasionally,  when  they  desired  to  make  a  raid  and  feared 
that  troops  were  near  at  hand,  they  did  so  on  foot.  After  a 
raid  of  this  kind  it  was  almost  impossible  to  find  an  Apache 
anywhere,  as  they  scattered  and  vanished  in  every  direction. 
The  distance  they  could  cover  in  a  day  on  foot  or  mounted, 
sometimes  without  water  or  food,  save  what  little  the}7  could 
pick  up  on  the  way,  made  it  almost  impossible  for  the  troops, 
no  matter  how  well  mounted,  to  overtake  them.  They  have 
been  known  to  travel  on  foot  one  hundred  miles  in  twenty- 
four  hours.  This  they  did  in  a  dog-trot,  which  was  kept  up 
incessantly  for  long  intervals,  going  from  five  to  six  miles 
an  hour  while  in  motion. 

They  could  lie  on  the  ground  and  by  ingeniously  making 
use  of  materials  near  at  hand,  earth,  grass,  bushes,  etc.,  could, 
chameleon-like,  appear  the  exact  color  of  their  environments. 
They  would  haunt  the  road  and  lie  in  ambush  for  a  day  or 
more  to  attack  a  wagon  train,  which  they  knew  was  en  route 
through  the  country  and  which  they  were  in  readiness  to  attack  at  a  favorable 
point  they  had  previously  selected. 

I  do  not  recollect  a  single  instance  of  a  party  of  Apaches  that  had  arranged 
to  attack  a  wagon  train  that  did  not  successfully  carry  out  their  plans.  The 
many  graves,  the  countless  bones  of  men  and  animals  left  to  bleach  under 
the  almost  tropical  sun,  bear  sufficient  testimony  to  the  number  and  murder- 
ous character  of  attacks  made  by  them  throughout  their  country.  Once  when 


WOOD  ARROW- 
HEAD. 


TWENTY   YEARS  AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 


195 


scouting  through  their  territorjr  with  an  old  and  experienced  guide,  many 
times  each  day  he  called  my  attention  to  the  bones  of  animals  and  men,  or 
to  small  mounds,  saying:  "Here  the  Apaches  murdered  such  an  expedition," 
or  "Here  they  killed  so  many  men."  Upon  questioning  him  I  failed  to  find 
that  any  Indians  had  been  killed,  though  he  declared  that  if  such  a  thing 
happened  the  remains  of  the  dead  would  not  fall  into  the  hands  of  the  white 
men. 

Their  country  was  in  every  way  adapted  to  attract  white  settlers, 
possessing  a  fertile  soil,  fine 
timber  lands,  as  well  as 
minerals  of  almost  every 
description.  Game  was 
also  plentiful.  Buffalo  in 
winter,  wild  turkey,  deer, 
bear,  and  wild  horses 
abounded.  These  and 
many  other  inducements 
would  long  before  have  at- 
tracted settlers  to  this  re- 
gion were  it  not  for  fear  of 
these  people. 

The  Apaches  sometimes, 
in  company  with  their 
allies,  the  Comanches, 
made  raids  into  the  north- 
e  r  n  portion  of  Mexico 
through  Sonora  and  Chi- 
huahua. The  raids  were 
made  for  booty,  and  were 
always  accompanied  by  dis- 
astrous results  to  the  Mexi- 
cans. Men,  women,  and 
children  were  frequently  carried  off  in  captivitjr  to  their  captors'  mountain 
fastnesses,  where  they  were  usually  treated  with  great  severity. 

The  raids,  however,  into  Mexico  were  not  as  frequent  as  they  were  else- 
where for  the  reason  that  the  limited  possessions  of  the  people  in  the  north- 
ern part  of  the  Mexican  States  were  not  of  great  value  to  the  Indians. 

The  Apaches  had  some  able  leaders,  Cochise,  Geronimo,  and  Mangus 
Colorado  being  especially  notable.  Mangus  Colorado  was  a  chief  of  great 
ability,  relentless,  treacherous,  and  possessed  of  much  low  cunning.  He, 


GERONIMO,  CHIEF  OF  THE  APACHES. 


196  TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG  OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 

more  than  any  other  one  man,  was  responsible  for  keeping  white  settlers  out 
of  that  country;  he  caused  more  devastation  than  any  other  Indian  chief  of 
his  nation.  He  frequently  led  the  allied  bands  of  Comanches,  Apaches,  and 
Kiowas  on  the  path  of  plunder  and  pillage.  It  was  he  who  commanded  the 
Indians  in  their  attack  on  Fort  Lancaster.  When  a  party  once  started  on  a 
warpath  under  his  direction  they  swept  the  country  clean  of  everything 
within  their  reach.  They  attacked  settlers,  herds,  and  wagon  trains  at 
sight,  without  waiting  for  the  usual  position  of  advantage.  During  my  long 
experience  I  cannot  recall  a  single  instance  where  a  party  under  the  leader- 
ship of  Mangus  Colorado  was  ever  overtaken  and  chastised  by  government 
troops. 

Whenever  settlers  made  their  appearance  over  what  Mangus  Colorado 
considered  his  hunting  ground,  he  immediately  organized  a  party  and  pro- 
ceeded to  destroy  them.  When  a  daring  rancher  or  cattle  man  located  his 
herds  on  what  the  Apaches  considered  their  territory,  they  were  seized  or 
driven  off  by  them.  Mangus  Colorado  levied  a  constant  tribute  on  the  small 
Mexican  settlements  all  through  the  lower  portion  of  Texas  near  El  Paso  and 
northern  Mexico.  The  inhabitants  and  villagers  of  that  whole  section  lived 
in  deadly  fear  of  this  miscreant  and  his  followers. 

Cochise  was  the  hereditary  war  chief  of  the  Chiricab.ua  Apaches,  and  was 
one  of  the  ablest  leaders  they  ever  had.  His  operations  extended  through 
Arizona  and  New  Mexico  into  Old  Mexico. 

An  officer*  who  was  speaking  with  Cochise  one  day  asked  him  if  he  was 
sorry  for  anything  he  had  ever  done  while  on  his  numerous  raids.  He  re- 
plied that  one  day  he  "roped"  a  Mexican  and  his  women  stripped  and  staked 
him  on  the  ground  in  the  hot  sun  over  an  ant  hill.  When  the  ants  began  to 
work  up  the  nostrils,  into  the  mouth  and  ears  of  the  helpless  man,  Cochise 
said  his  cries  were  terrible,  and  the  poor  man  died  a  lingering  death  in  great 
agony.  Cochise  said  that  every  dark  night,  when  everything  was  quiet,  he 
could  hear  the  groans  and  screams  of  the  dying  Mexican.  For  that  reason 
he  said  he  was  sorry  he  had  tortured  him  and  wished  he  had  shot  him 
instead. 

Geronimo  was  at  one  time  a  medicine  man  of  the  Chiricahua  Apaches, 
but  became  chief  because  of  his  success  in  raiding  the  Mexicans.  He  re- 
lated to  Lieutenant  Capron  the  following  story  of  his  first  raid : 

"When  I  was  a  little  boy  my  people  made  many  raids  into  Mexico.  I 
always  noticed  that  many  Apaches  were  killed  and  that  sometimes  a  whole 
war  party  would  be  lost.  No  one  could  account  for  this.  Not  even  the 

*  Lieutenant  Allyn  K.  Capron,  Seventh  Cavalry. 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 


197 


medicine  men.  The  first  war  party  I  went  with  made  a  raid  into  Mexico, 
and  one  day  we  came  to  a  little  Mexican  village.  All  the  Mexicans  came 
out  and  gave  the  Indians  mescal.  Most  of  the  Indians  got  drunk.  I  did 
not  take  any,  as  I  thought  it  was  bad  medicine.  When  the  drunken  Indians 
were  lying  and  rolling  on  the  ground  the  Mexicans  came  around  and  killed 
every  one  of  them  with  knives.  I  jumped  on  my  horse  and  went  back  to 
my  people.  Pretty  soon  I  took  a  war  party  down  to  the  same  place.  The 
Mexicans  came  out  with  the  mescal,  just  like  the  first  time,  and  my  men 
made  believe  to  be  very  drunk.  Then  I  gave  the  signal  and  we  killed  every 
Mexican  that  came  out.  This  made  me  a  big  man,  and  a  chief;  when  I  went 
home  all  the  people  called  me  a  big  chief." 

Geronimo,  and  Natchez,  son  of  Cochise, 
afterwards  war  chief  of  the  Chiricahuas,  to- 
gether with  twenty -two  men,  fourteen  women, 
and  three  children  were  on  the  warpath  in 
Arizona  and  Mexico  for  more  than  a  year, 
and  over  two  thousand  troops  were  called  into 
the  field  to  capture  them.  It  was  not  until 
September,  1888,  that  Geronimo  with  the  en- 
tire band,  consisting  of  over  three  hundred 
people,  surrendered.  ^^^^S""" 


THE   MOHAVE. 

There  were  also  several  other  Athabaskan 
tribes  in  Arizona,  some  of  whom  lived  in  a 
more  or  less  civilized  state.  The  Mohave 
tribe  lived  in  rude  but  permanent  houses  and 
cultivated  the  soil  after  Indian  fashion.  They  raised  corn,  melons,  and  a  few 
vegetables,  but  like  all  other  Indians  were  poor  agriculturists,  and  raised 
barely  sufficient  to  maintain  their  families.  They  were  inferior  hunters, 
securing  only  a  limited  supply  of  game  by  the  chase.  They  made  fishing- 
nets  of  braided  grass,  with  which  they  caught  fish.  They  were  of  a  low 
order  of  intelligence,  having  many  absurd  superstitions.  Some  of  them 
tattooed  themselves,  and  all  painted  their  faces  and  bodies.  The  Mohave 
women  were  fond  of  all  kinds  of  ornaments,  and  made  necklaces  from 
hides  and  tanned  skins,  which  they  adorned  with  buttons,  shells,  and 
beads. 


VARIOUS  INDIAN   CHARACTERS   IN 
ARIZONA. 


198 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 


The  Mohave  men  were  more  considerate  of  the  females  than  were  some  of 
their  neighbors.  Although  polygamy  was  allowed  it  was  not  practiced. 
The  men  did  not  require  the  women  to  do  all  the  hard  work  of  the  camp;  in 
this  respect  being  a  notable  exception  to  the  almost  universal  custom  of 
tribes  of  this  family. 

Many  other  small  tribes  of  different  linguistic  stock,  more  or  less  civilized, 

had  their  homes  in  Arizona.  Nearly  all 
of  them  depended  largely  upon  agricul- 
ture and  stock  raising  for  maintenance. 
They  were  generally  at  peace  with  the 
whites,  rarely  ever  committing  depreda- 
tions. Among  these  tribes  were  the 
Papagos,  Maricopas,  and  Yumas.  In 
characteristics  and  customs  they  resem- 
bled the  Pueblos;  in  appearance  and 
dress  were  not  unlike  the  Mohaves. 

Besides  these  there  were  in  Arizona 
some  other  small  tribes  of  Indians,  in 
their  manner  of  living  and  in  other  re- 
spects bearing  a  close  resemblance  to 
one  another.  Some  of  them  understood 
the  art  of  making  the  Guadalajara 
ware,  which  I  shall  elsewhere  describe. 
They  were  a  miserable  lot  at  best, 
without  accomplishments  of  any  kind, 
though  they  lived  in  fixed  habita- 
tions. Sometimes  the  habitations  were  situated  well  up  on  the  side  of  the 
mountains.  They  did  not  claim  to  be  the  owners  of  the  land  which  they 
occupied,  and  their  herds  roamed  over  the  country  by  common  consent. 
They  were  seldom,  or  never,  at  war  with  each  other.  Each  had  its  distinct 
tribal  organization,  under  its  own  chief,  or  selectman,  who  made  such  laws 
as  they  had,  and  looked  after  the  interests  of  the  tribe  generally. 


TYPICAL,  ARIZONA    INDIANS. 


THE  LIPANS. 

The  principal  hunting  ground  of  the  Lipans  was  along  the  Rio  Grande  in 
New  and  Old  Mexico.     They  were  less  given  to  war  than  the  Apaches,  but 


TWENTY    YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 


199 


when  on  the  warpath  were  a  vicious  lot.  They  did  not  live  entirely  by 
marauding  and  the  chase.  They  had  some  knowledge  of  agriculture  and 
raised  a  few  animals,  thus  contributing  to  their  sustenance.  In  their  ap- 
pearance and  home  life  little  can  be  said  of  the  Lipans  that  has  not  been 
said  about  the  Apaches. 


CHILDREN'S  TOYS. 
1. — Bull  roarer  is  held  by  two  persons;  the  strings  being  twisted,  then  relaxed  and 

pulled  taut  again,  causes  the  bone  in  the  center  to  revolve  rapidly,  which  makes  a 

noise  similar  to  the  roaring  of  a  bull. 
2. — The  hummer  is  held  by  the  thongs,  then  swung  around  the  head  rapidly,  creates  a 

humming  noise ;  formerly  the  hummer  was  used  as  a  comb. 


200 


TWENTY   YEARS  AMONG   OUR  HOSTILE   INDIANS. 


CHAPTER  XXII. 

THE  MYSTERIOUS  UTES— THEIR  SECRET  CUSTOMS  AND  QUEER  DOINGS. 

The  Mysterious  Utes — A  Part  of  the  Great  Shoshonee  Nation — Their  Fierce  Encounters 
with  their  Neighbors — A  Wandering  Tribe — Rarely  Defeated — Small,  Black,  Strong 
and  Vicious — Constantly  on  the  Warpath — Their  Home  Life — Their  Poverty — 
Filthy  Indians  and  Dirty  Lodges — A  Lazy  People — The  Most  Secretive  of  all 
Indians — Their  One  Great  Peculiarity — Profound  Secrecy — Secret  Burial — The 
Mysterious  Grave  of  a  Ute — Where  Did  they  Bury  their  Dead? — Death  of  the  Head 
of  the  Family — Destruction  of  his  Property — Birth  of  a  Child — Treating  the  Sick — 
Their  Food,  Clothing,  and  Arms — Eating  Rats,  Mice,  Crickets  and  Snakes — The 
Pah-Utes  and  the  Pi-Utes — A  Miserable  Lot  of  Red  Men. 

THE  Utes  were  a  part  of  the  great  Shosho- 
nee nation  and  were  divided  into  many 
small  tribes,  each  under  its  own  chief. 
There  was  no  grand  chief,  neither  was 
there  any  gradation  among  the  chiefs  of 
the  different  tribes.  Warriors  chose  one 
of  their  number  for  a  chief  who  was  fitted 
for  the  position  both  mentally  and  phys- 
ically, and  who  possessed  personal  attrac- 
tion as  well  as  popularity.  The  chieftain- 
ship was  not  hereditary ;  when  the  office 
oecame  vacant  from  any  cause  another 
chief  was  selected  in  the  same  manner  as 
his  predecessor.  A  chief  could  also  be 
deposed  by  the  same  power  that  elected 
him,  though  such  an  occurrence  was  rare. 
The  Utes  covered  the  large  territory  em- 
bracing the  greater  part  of  Utah,  western  Colorado,  northern  New 
Mexico,  the  northern  part  of  Arizona,  and  the  southern  part  of  Wyo- 
ming and  Nevada.  The  different  tribes  of  Utes  were  never  at  war 
with  each  other.  When  a  hunting  party  from  one  tribe  came  upon 
a  village  of  another  tribe  of  Utes  they  were  always  welcome,  and  some 


OUBAY  (ARROW)  UTE  CHIEF. 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS.  201 

of  the  warriors  of  the  latter  tribe  might  join  the  expedition.  In  their 
hunts  and  raids,  which  were  frequent,  the  Utes  often  wandered  into  the 
country  of  the  Cheyennes  and  Arapahoes  in  Colorado,  the  Kiowas,  in  the 
Indian  Territory,  and  the  Apaches  in  Arizona. 

They  have  been  known  to  go  as  far  east  through  the  territory  of 
their  enemies,  Cheyennes  and  Arapahoes  and  Sioux,  as  the  States 
of  Missouri  and  Kansas.  Thejr  were  bold  and  fearless  in  all  their 
raids  and  hunting  parties,  and  had  many  fierce  encounters  with  the 
Indians,  whose  territory  they  invaded,  in  which  they  were  generally 
victorious.  One  of  their  favorite  hunting  grounds  was  the  South 
Park.  Here  they  had  many  battles  with  the  allied  Cheyennes  and  Ara- 
pahoes; as  this  part  of  the  country  was  filled  with  game,  the  right  to  it  was 
contested  by  several  Indian  nations.  It  was  seldom  that  the  Utes  were 
defeated  in  conflicts  that  took  place  west  of  the  Snowy  Range  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains.  They  also  had  frequent  encounters  with  the  Crows,  their  neigh- 
bors on  the  north. 

The  Utes  were  small  in  stature,  very  dark  in  color,  strong,  wiry,  and 
vicious;  in  battle  it  was  an  even  chance  that  they  could  hold  their  own 
against  their  most  warlike  neighbors.  When  they  went  on  the  warpath  it 
meant  war  in  earnest ;  there  was  no  extreme  to  which  they  would  not  go  to 
conquer,  especially  when  they  were  searching  for  new  hunting  grounds  or 
in  need  of  game  or  wanted  a  fresh  supply  of  horses  and  mules. 

When  the  Overland  road  was  established  across  the  plains  it  passed 
directly  through  their  country.  The  Utes,  seeing  the  large  number  of 
wagons  and  white  people  going  West  over  this  road  each  year,  believed 
that  nearly  all  the  white  people  in  the  East  traveled  through  their  country 
during  the  summer ;  that  they  returned  to  the  East  by  another  route  and  passed 
through  their  territory  again  the  next  year.  After  the  Mormons  occupied 
Salt  Lake  City  the  Utes  began  to  realize  the  great  number  of  the  whites, 
and  treated  them  with  much  more  consideration.  It  was  in  the  territory  of 
the  Utes  that  the  famous  scout,  Jim  Bridger,  established  one  of  the  first  trad- 
ing posts  in  the  West,  which  is  still  known  as  Fort  Bridger. 

The  Utes  were  a  nomadic  people,  living  in  skin-cohered  lodges,  which 
were  made  after  the  typical  Indian  fashion.  Their  possessions  were  few, 
and  almost  everything  they  had  or  made  was  for  utility  and  not  for  orna- 
ment. Like  all  Indians,  they  were  lazy,  and  dirty  both  in  person  as  well 
as  in  their  habitations;  both  they  and  their  belongings  were  generally 
covered  with  vermin,  which  they  caught  and  ate. 

They  worshiped  stone  and  wooden  images.    Why  they  did  so  I  was  never 


202 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG  OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 


able  to  learn,  for  they  believed  in  the  Great  Creator  and  were  sun  worshipers 
after  their  own  fashion. 

Of  all  the  Indians  in  the  great  West  none  were  more  difficult  to  under- 
stand.    Everything  they  did,  or  attempted  to  do,  of  a  personal  nature  was 
kept  a  secret  among  themselves.     They  would  not  permit  an   outsider   to 
learn  anything  about  their  personal  characteristics  if  they  could  prevent  it. 
A  Ute  would  not  even  tell  his  name  or  that  of  any  member 
of  his  family,  neither  would  he  permit  any  one  else  to  do  so, 
nor  would  he  mention  the  price  put.  on  one  of  his  daughters 
when  she  was  to  become  the  wife  of  one  of  the  tribe.     It  was 
known  to  the  father  and  intended  husband  only.     Everything 
a  Ute  did  seemed  to  be  obscured  in  mystery;  for  that  reason 
less  was  known  of  them  than  of  any  other  Indians  in  the  West. 
They  had  one    peculiarity    which  was   unlike    any  other 
nation  or  tribe,  namely,  the  great  secrecy  they  observed  in 
their  funeral  ceremonies;  for  no  white  person,    so   far  as   I 
know,  has  ever  seen  the  funeral  of  a  Ute,  or  the  grave  or 
burial  of  one  of  their  dead.     When   one   of  them  died  the 
corpse  vanished.     Whether  they  themselves  generally  knew 
the  resting  place  of  the  dead  is  difficult  to  decide. 

It  was  generally  believed  by  those  who  knew  most 
about  them,  and  closely  observed  their  ways,  that  the  bodies 
of  the  dead  were  removed  during  the  night  and  secretly 
buried  in  a  cave  or  in  the  ground,  though  this  is 
merely  surmise.  At  any  rate,  they  secretly  got  rid  of 
the  bodies  in  some  way.  It  is  my  opinion  that  they  buried 
them  deep  in  holes  in  the  earth  during  the  night,  and  so 
carefully  covered  them  after  interment  as  to  leave  no  trace 
of  the  burial  spot.  There  was  no  mourning  after  the  body 
was  removed  from  the  family  lodge.  They  would  neither 
talk  of  the  dead  or  mention  their  names,  and,  unlike  other  Indians,  if  they 
knew  the  burial  place  would  not  go  near  it.  Secrecy  and  a  desire  to  obliter- 
ate all  remembrance  of  the  departed  as  quickly  as  possible  were  marked 
characteristics. 

At  the  death  of  the  head  of  a  family,  the  survivors  destroyed  almost 
everything  belonging  to  the  deceased.  This  is  one  reason  why  they  were  so 
miserably  poor.  The  lodge  covering  was  cut  into  shreds,  and  every  article 
owned  by  the  dead  was  so  distributed  as  to  scarcely  leave  a  vestige  of  its 
former  owner.  They  would  burn  articles  of  great  value  to  them,  that 


UTE  STONE 
KNIFE. 


TWENTY   YEARS  AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE    INDIANS. 


203 


had   once    belonged    to  the  deceased,   and    sometimes    the    entire    camp 
moved. 

The  Utes  were  never  visited  by  small-pox,  cholera,  or  other  dread  diseases. 
Had  an  epidemic  made  an  appearance  in  one  of  their  camps  it  would  have 


?-"&tta*a* 


UTE   CAMP   LOS  PINOS. 
Reproduced  by  permission  of  C.  A.  Nichols  &  Co.  "  Land  and  Country." 

annihilated  them,  owing  to  their  filthy  habits  as  well  as  lack  of  means  or 
knowledge  of  combating  disease. 

In  the  treatment  of  the  sick  and  afflicted  they  had  little  if  any  skill.  They 
administered  a  few  herbs  and  teas,  and  their  medicine  men,  in  their  efforts 
to  perform  a  cure,  went  through  the  usual  mystifying  process,  the  meaning 


.204 

of  whbh  was  known  only  to  themselves.  They  did  not  even  have  the  sweat- 
baths  so  common  to  the  Sioux. 

The  women,  in  giving  birth  to  children,  did  so  in  their  characteristically 
stealthy  manner;  frequently  nothing  was  known  among  the  tribe  of  the  new 
arrival  until  after  the  child  was  some  weeks  old. 

Like  all  other  nomadic  people,  they  were  compelled  to  move  frequently  to 
obtain  subsistence  for  their  animals  and  themselves.  When  camp  was  to  be 
moved  the  women,  after  usual  Indian  fashion,  did  all  the  work,  taking  down 
the  lodges  and  packing  the  effects  on  the  animals;  when  the  latter  were  in- 
sufficient, the  women  themselves  became  beasts  of  burden. 

The  women  were  homely  and  repulsive  in  appearance,  and  wore  only  the 
scantiest  clothing,  consisting  of  a  covering  hung  over  a  belt  around  the 
waist  extending  to  the  knees.  They  made  winter  clothing  from  skins  of 
dogs  and  wolves,  as  well  as  the  rabbit  and  other  small  animals.  Children  of 
both  seres  were  almost  always  naked  during  the  warm  months. 

The  men  wore  their  hair  long  and  sometimes  braided  in  queues;  the 
wcmen  cut  theirs  just  above  the  shoulders.  Neither  sex  took  much  care  of 
it.  Nor  did  they  paint  themselves  like  other  Indians.  The  men  wore  the 
customary  breechcloth  and  a  pair  of  moccasins,  which,  with  a  robe  of 
buffalo  or  of  some  other  animal,  constituted  their  dress  for  winter. 

The  Utes  at  this  time  lived  wholly  by  the  chase,  although  large  game 
was  not  abundant  in  their  territory.  They  were  frequently  compelled  to 
live  on  rabbits  and  such  other  small  game  as  they  could  secure  in  their  im- 
mediate vicinity.  The  scarcity  of  large  game  in  their  country  compelled 
the  absence  of  the  men  almost  constantly  on  hunting  or  war  parties.  If 
small  game  was  lacking,  they  ate  their  horses  and  dogs.  In  times  of  great 
scarcity,  rats,  mice,  crickets,  snakes,  roots  and  buds  served  them  as  food. 

Their  arms  consisted  of  the  bow  and  arrow,  lance,  and  modern  firearms. 
At  an  early  day  they  had  a  few  flint-lock  guns  and  pistols;  these  they  ob- 
tained from  white  people,  and  were  greatly  prized  by  them.  But  when  sur- 
prised, or  compelled  to  abandon  any  portiou  of  their  equipment,  they  always 
discarded  the  firearms,  clinging  to  their  primitive  weapons. 

Unlike  the  Indians  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  the  Utes  did  not  all  have 
the  large  red  pipe.  When  smoking  became  more  common  among  them  they 
used  larire  cigarettes,  made  by  rolling  their  smoking  material  in  paper,  the 
leaf  of  a  tree,  or  the  inner  bark  of  the  red  willow.  They  were  too  miserably 
poor  to  indulge  in  smoking  except  at  long  intervals,  or  upon  special  occa- 
sions. 

They  usually  avoided  war  with  the  whites,  but  occasionally  some  of  their 
bands  plundered  emigrant  trains  and  killed  overland  travelers  passing  over 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 


205 


the  route  in  the  vicinity.  As  they  were  divided  into  so  many  tribes,  which 
were  constantly  breaking  up  and  intermingling  with  others,  it  was  almost 
impossible  to  enter  into  treaties  with  them.  They  would  so  change  and 
shift  from  one  to  another  that  no  sooner  would  a  treaty  be  concluded  with  one 
tribe  than  one-half  of  it  joined  with  others  that  were  hostile. 

The  Pah-Ute  tribe  numbered  about  six  hundred,  and  inhabited  the  country 
which  is  now  the  northern  portion  of  Nevada.  They  were  nomadic  in  sum- 
mer, and  lived  in  houses  made  of  rushes,  during  the  winter. 


UTE  FAMILY — MAN  AND   THREE   WIVES. 

(From  a  very  old  photograph.) 

Some  of  the  tribes  refused  to  join  the  Mormons  fighting  against  the  Gov- 
ernment during  the  Mormon  war.  This  created  bad  feeling  between  the 
two  peoples.  There  was  also  considerable  trouble  and  fighting  between  the 
Utes  and  miners  in  that  region.  Winnemuca  defeated  Major  Ormsby  on 
Truckee  River  in  a  well-contested  battle.  Subsequently  some  of  the  tribes 
ceded  their  lands  to  the  Government,  agreeing  to  go  on  reservations,  but  a 
bad  spirit  soon  manifested  itself  among  the  Indians.  The  Pah-Utes,  under 
their  chief,  Black  Hawk,  committed  many  depredations,  and  for  several 
years  kept  his  people  in  constant  war.  The  chief  of  the  Sampiche  tribe 
was  accused  of  aiding  Black  Hawk;  after  his  arrest  by  the  troops  he 
attempted  escape,  but  was  killed. 


206 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 


Some  time  after  this,  Colonel  Alexander  defeated  Onkotash,  chief  of  the 
Mohache,  killing  many  of  his  warriors.  A  treaty  was  then  concluded 
between  the  Government  and  the  chiefs  of  a  number  of  Ute  tribes,  whereby 
a  tract  of  territory  was  set  apart  for  the  Indians. 

It  was  stipulated  by  the  treaty  that  no  outsiders  should  be  permitted  to 

settle   upon  the    lands.     For 

ten  years  succeeding  the 
treaty,  the  tribe  increa&ed  in 
numbers  and  wealth,  and 
were  as  peaceable  as  could  be 
expected.  But  the  invasion 
of  the  territory  followed, 
when  hostilities  again  broke 
out  between  the  red  and  white 
men.  The  agent  and  a  num- 
ber of  his  employees  were 
killed  at  White  River  Agen- 
cy; the  buildings  burned, 
the  women  and  children 
seized  ana  carried  off. 

Troops  were  called  out  and 
the  war  that  followed  was 
very  costly,  as  well  as  san- 
guinary, as  the  Utes  in  all 
its  many  branches  joined, 
making  common  cause 
against  the  whites. 

The  Pi- Utes  tribe  in- 
habited the  southeastern  por- 
tion of  what  is  now  Nevada.  They  had  their  habitations  far  away  from 
the  Overland  road,  and  did  not  come  in  contact  with  or  molest  the  whites. 
They  were  miserable  beings,  and  of  about  the  same  standard  as  their 
cousins,  the  Bannocks. 

All  of  the  Ute  tribes  bore  the  indelible  mark,  and  spoke  the  language  of 
the  Shoshonee  nation;  the  Utes  were  probably  the  best  specimens  of  any 
tribe  of  this  family.  The  Utes  in  all  their  branches  constituted  one  group, 
but  was  made  up  of  confederated  tribes;  of  their  characteristics  and  customs 
all  that  applies  to  the  Utes  in  general  cover  the  other  tribes. 


PI  UTE   HABITATION. 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS.  207 


CHAPTER   XXIII. 

THE  SNAKES  AND  ROOT  DIGGERS— INTERESTING   AND  PECULIAR    TRIBE- 
LOAFERS  AND  GAMBLERS. 

The  Snakes  a  Part  of  the  Shoshonee  Nation — An  Interesting  Tribe — Their  Hunting 
Ground — Afflicted  with  Goitre — Necks  Larger  than  their  Heads — Their  Great 
Enmity  with  the  Cheyennes,  Blackfeet  and  Sioux — A  Crafty,  Treacherous  Tribe 
— Their  Fiendish  Cruelty  to  Prisoners — How  they  Secured  Firearms — Manner  of 
Wearing  their  Hair — Their  Poverty — Securing  Wild  Horses — Their  Expertness  as 
Boatmen — Description  of  a  Bull-Boat — Ingenuity  of  the  Snakes — Manner  of  Catch- 
ing fish — Lazy  Fishermen — Their  Expertness  in  the  Use  of  the  Sign  Language — 
Communication  by  Means  of  Horses,  Fire,  and  Smoke — The  Bannocks,  or  Root 
Diggers — A  Miserable  People — Loafers  and  Gamblers. 

THE  Snakes  were  a  tribe  of  the  great  Shoshonee  nation.  There  being  no 
other  tribe  of  that  family  in  the  immediate  vicinity,  the  early  trappers  and 
frontiersmen  called  them  Shoshonees,  believing  them  to  be  all  there  were  of 
this  peculiar  people.  Lieutenants  Lewis  and  Clark  also  labored  under  the 
same  mistake.  The  Snakes  occupied  the  territory  in  and  around  the  Snake 
River  Valley,  and  their  hunting  ground  extended  eastward  to  the  footol  the 
Bitter  Root  Mountains,  and  as  far  south  as  the  Ute  country.  Living  so  far 
north  they  were  subject  to  the  rigors  of  severe  winters,  and  knew  how  to 
fortify  themselves  against  bitter  cold. 

It  was  among  this  tribe  that  Jim  Baker,  a  famous  scout  and  frontiers- 
man, lived  the  Indian  life  for  many  years,  married  into  the  tribe,  and  had 
many  children  by  his  numerous  Snake  wives.  Whether  his  influence, 
which  was  great  among  them,  modified  their  wild  life,  is  an  open  question, 
though  I  am  strongly  inclined  to  believe  that  it  did  to  some  extent. 

The  water  in  the  country  occupied  by  the  Snakes  was  supplied  by  moun- 
tain gorges  which  were  filled  with  snow  and  ice.  Many  of  the  men  suffered 
from  goitre — an  enlargement  of  the  neck — from  drinking  snow  water.  It 
was  not  uncommon  to  see  a  Snake  Indian  with  his  neck  as  large  around 
as  his  head. 

Their  country  was  well  wooded  with  various  kinds  of  trees  which  furnished 
ample  fuel  and  afforded  some  protection  against  storms.  To  protect  them- 
selves against  the  cold  the  Snakes  often  camped  near  a  beaver  dam  where 


208 


TWENTY   YEARS  AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 


these  little  animals  had  cut  down  trees,  and  from  the  fallen  timber  they  made 
corrals  for  their  animals,  and  fortifications  to  protect  themselves  against 
wintry  blasts. 


TYPICAL   SNAKE   INDIAN. 


The  Snakes  did  not  differ  materially  from  other  Shoshonee  tribes.  They 
were  cruel,  treacherous,  crafty,  and  thievish,  and  were  continually  at  war 
with  their  neighbors,  but  were  particularlv  aggressive  toward  the  Crows 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS.  209 

northern  Cheyennes,  Sioux,  and  Blackfeet.  As  warriors,  they  were  exceed- 
ingly brave.  They  treated  captives  with  great  brutality,  often  killing  male 
prisoners  after  subjecting  them  to  pitiless  and  prolonged  torture.  Female 
captives  were  turned  over  to  the  women,  who  took  delight  in  torturing  them 
with  fiendish  ingenuity.  Children  captives  were  frequently  adopted  into 
the  tribe,  the  girls  eventually  becoming  the  wives  of  a  Snake,  and  the  boys 
were  brought  up  as  warriors. 

The  more  scalps  a  Snake  warrior  had  to  his  credit  the  greater  was  he  hon- 
ored by  his  people.  They  often  ate  the  flesh  of  a  brave  enemy,  in  the  belief 
that  the  valor  of  the  slain  would  be  imparted  to  them. 

They  were  skillful  in  evading  pursuit,  both  when  mounted  and  on  foot; 
and  would  scatter  in  all  directions,  making  it  impossible  to  follow  so  many 
trails;  or  if  near  a  shallow  stream  they  would  travel  in  it  for  miles;  in  this 
way  leave  no  trail  to  follow. 

A  favorite  method  of  attacking  was  at  night.  When  approaching  by 
stealth,  under  cover  of  darkness,  they  always  endeavored  to  take  the  party 
by  surprise,  causing  a  stampede  of  their  animals  and  creating  a  panic.  Their 
weapons  were  few,  consisting  of  the  usual  bow  and  arrow,  lance,  and  toma- 
hawk. Later  they  obtained  firearms  from  the  traders ;  but  were  generally 
too  poor  to  secure  effective  weapons,  as  they  had  nothing  to  exchange  for 
them.  Their  principal  means  of  supply  was  from  their  greatest  enemy,  the 
Blackfeet.  When  victorious  in  battle  with  them  they  secured  the  arms 
belonging  to  the  beaten  tribe.  Their  great  difficulty  however,  was  in  pro- 
curing ammunition,  for  this  was  not  plentiful  in  their  country ;  consequently 
they  were  nearly  always  compelled  to  use  their  primitive  equipment. 

The  Snakes  wore  their  hair  long  and  allowed  it  to  flow  loosely  over  the 
shoulders.  They  sometimes  cut  it  straight  across  the  forehead,  giving  the 
face  the  appearance  of  being  in  a  black  frame.  In  habits  they  were  filthy, 
taking  no  care  whatever  of  their  person,  and  their  hair  and  bodies  swarmed 
with  vermin.  They  were  fond  of  ornament,  adorning  themselves  in  fan- 
tastic ways,  when  they  could  get  material  for  the  purpose;  but  being  miser- 
ably poor  they  had  little  indulgence  in  this  direction.  With  them  it  was 
an  open  fight  for  existence  at  all  times;  they  were  more  concerned  in  secur- 
ing a  livelihood  than  in  ornamenting  their  clothing  and  bodies.  They  lived 
in  lodges,  were  nomadic,  and  constantly  on  the  move  to  secure  game  for 
themselves  and  food  for  their  animals. 

They  secured  horses  from  the  many  wild  herds  that  ranged  over  their  ter- 
ritory. These  animals  were  small  and  when  put  to  the  hard  work  imposed 
by  the  Indians  proved  of  little  value. 

Both  men  and  women  were  expert  workers   in    making   the   birch-bark 


210  TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG  OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 

canoe,  as  well  as  the  bull- boat.  A  bull-boat  was  made  by  fastening  to- 
gether boat  knees  made  of  young,  tough  trees.  The  framework  was  made 
very  strong,  and  braced  throughout  in  the  center.  Over  this  was 
stretched  a  sufficient  number  of  raw  hides  of  buffalo  bulls  to  cover  the  entire 
frame.  The  hides  were  sewed  together  with  thongs,  and  when  thoroughly 
wet  were  stretched  on  the  frames  as  taut  as  possible  and  left  in  the  sun  to 
dry.  The  seams  and  holes  were  covered  with  strips  of  rawhide,  sewed  on 
with  sinew  and  fastened  by  glue  made  from  the  hoofs,  horns,  and  hides  of 
the  animal.  They  made  a  very  tight,  snug,  and  serviceable  craft.  Bull- 
boats  were  of  invaluable  service  in  crossing  the  many  rivers  that  traverse 
that  country.  It  is  my  belief  that  the  Snakes  showed  Lieutenants  Lewis  and 
Clark  how  to  make  bull-boats,  for  they  vMere  afterwards  in  common  use  by 
the  troops  and  others  in  crossing  swollen  and  large  rivers.  Bull-boats  can 
be  made  almost  any  size.  Some  of  them  were  large  enough  to  carry  a  team 
of  horses  or  mules,  with  a  loaded  army  wagon,  across  a  river  in  safety. 
They  were  very  buoyant,  but  it  required  a  good  boatman  to  handle  them. 

The  Snakes  were  a  hardy  and  healthy  race,  and  associated  or  allied  them- 
selves with  no  other  Indians.  They,  unlike  the  majority  of  Indians,  made 
some  provision  for  future  needs.  During  the  summer  they  killed  a  sufficient 
amount  of  buffalo  and  smaller  game,  and  jerked  the  meat  for  use  during  the 
winter.  They  also  made  jackets  for  themselves  from  the  hides  of  the  elk, 
moose,  or  bear,  to  protect  them  against  the  extreme  cold. 

Their  handiwork  was  not  so  ornamental  as  useful,  although  they  made 
pretty  work  with  troquois  shells.  The  men  were  expert  in  the  management 
of  horses,  treating  them  and  other  animals  with  more  kindness  than  some  of 
the  Indians  farther  south. 

A  favorite  method  of  catching  fish  was  to  wait  for  the  water  of  swollen 
rivers  to  recede,  when  the  Indians  threw  out  with  their  hands  fish  that  had 
become  land-locked.  The  majority  of  Indians  in  the  West  did  not  eat  fish. 
The  Indian  so  often  represented  floating  down  a  stream  in  his  canoe,  with 
spear  in  hand,  spearing  fish,  may  look  well  in  a  picture,  but  such  scenes  were 
never  witnessed  among  the  wild  Indians  of  the  West. 

In  their  home  life  the  Snakes  were  kind.  The  male  was  master  of  his 
entire  household,  but  universally  considerate  to  all.  Women  were  not  re- 
quired to  do  all  the  work,  there  being  a  tacit  agreement  that  the  men  should 
assist  in  work  of  a  heavy  nature,  and  caring  for  the  live  stock  was  a  part 
of  their  daily  labor. 

The  Snakes  were  surrounded  on  every  side  by  Indians  of  other  nations 
speaking  different  languages;  when  they  wished  to  converse  with  them  it 
was  necessary  to  do  so  in  the  sign  language.  Consequently,  they  were  more 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS.  211 

expert  in  the  use  of  this  language  than  any  other  Indians  in  the  far  north. 
They  were  not  only  skilled  in  the  sign  language  of  the  hands,  but  could 
readily  communicate  by  the  movements  of  the  horse,  or  by  means  of  fire  and 
smoke.  Their  oral  language  was  identical  with  that  of  the  Shoshonee 
family,  but  they  had  a  dialect  of  their  own,  which  differed  materially  from 
that  of  many  other  tribes  of  this  nation;  so  much  so,  that  they  could  not 
converse  orally  with  many  of  their  kindred  tribes,  but  were  compelled  to 
use  the  sign  language. 

The  Snakes  were  polygamous ;  they  had  little  or  no  religious  belief,  but 
few  ceremonies  or  pastimes,  and  were  contented  to  live  a  miserable  life 
with  the  least  possible  exertion. 


THE  BANNOCKS,  OR  BOOT  DIGGERS. 

The  Bannocks  were  a  part  of  the  Shoshonee  family.  Their  language 
was  originally  that  of  the  Shoshone,  but  thej^  spoke  a  dialect  of  their  own. 

The  principal  hunting  ground  of  the  Bannocks,  or  Root  Diggers,  was  to  the 
west  of  the  Bitter  Root  Mountains  and  south  of  the  Coeur  d'Alene  River. 
They  acquired  the  name  of  Root  Diggers  from  the  fact  that  they  subsisted 
largely  on  roots,  which  the  women  dug  from  the  ground.  In  the  early  morn- 
ing the  women,  armed  with  pointed  sticks  or  other  sharp  implements,  went 
to  the  mountains,  remaining  all  day,  digging  enough  roots  for  the  family 
needs,  while  the  men  loafed  about  the  lodges  in  idleness,  or  engaged  in  gam- 
bling. The  wild  potato  grew  in  their  country,  as  well  as  various  kinds  of 
berries  and  fruits;  these,  in  addition  to  small  game,  made  up  their  daily 
food.  They  were  a  poor,  miserable,  treacherous,  half-starved  lot. 

For  their  winter  habitations  they  made  a  hole  in  the  ground  large  enough 
to  accommodate  their  families,  with  an  opening  at  the  top  to  let  out  the 
smoke.  Some  of  their  habitations  were  only  half  dug  out,  being  built  partly 
under  and  partly  above  ground;  the  part  above  was  thatched  with  rushes  and 
grass.  The  entrance  at  the  side  was  large  enough  to  admit  the  body. 
In  summer  they  made  rude  lodges  by  drawing  the  tops  of  bushes  together, 
over  which  they  thiew  skins  or  grass  to  protect  them  from  the  sun.  These 
were  only  loafing  places  for  the  men,  while  the  women  were  away  procuring 
roots  for  food. 

In  treating  the  sick  roots  and  teas  were  used,  also  the  same  kind  of  a 
sweat  house  used  by  the  Sioux.  Sweat  houses  were  to  be  seen  all  through 
their  territory. 


212 


TWENTY    YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 


The  Barmocks  were  not  a  warlike  people,  having  only  a  few  arms  or  imple- 
ments of  war.  In  general  intelligence  they  were  only  a  shade  above  their 
cousins,  the  Diggers.  The  men  cared  for  nothing  as  long  as  they  had  enough 
to  eat  and  a  place  where  they  could  loaf  and  gamble. 


BANNOCK  FAMILY  AT  HOME — MAN  WITH  THREE  WIVES. 


They  were  never  a  numerous  tribe,  and  all  their  surrounding  neighbors 
held  them  in  much  contempt,  never  molesting  them — being  so  miserably 
poor  and  filthy,  no  one  went  near  them. 


TWENTY    YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE    INDIANS.  213 


CHAPTER   XXIV. 

THE  DIGGER  INDIANS— OUTCASTS  OF  OTHER  TRIBES— THE  LOWEST  OF  THE 

LOW. 

How  the  Diggers  Acquired  their  Name — A  Conglomerate  Lot — Living  on  Roots  and  Burrow- 
ing in  Holes — The  Lowest  in  Intelligence  and  most  Degraded  of  all  Indians — Only  one 
Remove  from  Apes — Their  Repulsive  Appearance — Extraordinary  Voracity — Sur- 
rounding the  Carcass  of  a  Horse— Leaving  Nothing  but  its  Bones — Selling  their 
Children  to  Obtain  Food — Living  together  in  Herds — Below  the  Level  of  Beasts- 
Going  Entirely  Naked  in  Summer — Living  on  Insects  and  Reptiles — The  Personifi- 
cation of  all  that  is  Low  and  Vile— Their  Filthy  Lodges — Living  in  Caves — A  Tribe 
of  Vermin  Eaters — Their  Gaunt,  Half -Famished  Dogs — Ignorance  of  the  Sign  Lan- 
guage— Marriage  Unknown  among  Them — Eating  Raw  Fish — Ostracized  by  Every 
One — How  a  Sick  Digger  was  Taken  Care  of —His  Fate  after  Death. 

IN  stature  and  bearing  the  Digger  Indians  strongly  resembled  members  of 
the  great  Shoshonee  family.  The  name  Digger  was  applied  to  them  from 
their  habit  of  digging  in  the  grouncf  for  edible  roots,  and  burrowing  in  holes 
for  their  habitations.  The  term  has  been  somewhat  indiscriminately  used 
in  describing  the  Indians  of  California,  Nevada,  Utah,  and  the  contiguous 
country.  The  true  Digger  Indians  lived  in  the  northeastern  part  or  what  is 
now  the  State  of  Nevada. 

It  is  my  opinion  that  the  Diggers  were  not  tribes  at  all,  but  were  the  out- 
casts of  different  tribes  of  the  Shoshonees;  that  when  individual  Snakes, 
Utes,  Bannocks,  and  others  became  so  low  as  to  be  unfit  to  remain  in  their 
respective  tribes  they  were  forced  out,  finally  coming  together  as  a  conglom- 
erate band  formed  from  the  outcasts  of  various  tribes. 

At  best  their  life  was  but  little  above  that  of  the  ape  family,  and  it  is 
therefore  very  difficult  to  establish  for  them  an  individuality  at  all  satisfac- 
tory. 

The  Diggers  were  divided  into  two  parts,  which,  for  want  of  a  better 
name,  I  shall  call  tribes.  One  of  these  tribes,  numbering  about  five  hun- 
dred, occupied  the  country  about  the  confluence  of  the  north  and  south  forks 
of  the  Humboldt  River.  The  other  tribe,  numbering  about  six  hundred, 
lived  farther  west  along  this  river. 

In  personal  appearance  the  Diggers  were  the  most  repulsive  of  all  Indians. 


214  TWENTY    YEARS  AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 

Their  hair  was  long,  reaching  to  the  waist,  and  in  coarseness  resembled  the 
tail  of  a  horse  or  mule.  Their  faces  were  as  devoid  of  intellectual  expression 
as  if  they  were  the  lower  animals ;  indeed,  one  could  not  but  notice  a  strong 
similarity  to  wild  beasts  in  their  appearance  and  actions. 

Their  voracity  when  they  could  procure  a  supply  of  food  was  almost  in- 
credible. Five  or  six  of  them  would  sit  around  the  carcass  of  a  horse  or 
mule  and  remain  there  until  nothing  but  the  bones  were  left.  Unlike  their 
Indian  neighbors,  they  stole  horses  and  mules,  not  to  ride  but  to  slaughter 
for  food,  and  they  have  even  been  known  to  sell  their  children  in  order  to  in- 
crease their  scanty  food  supplies. 

Of  their  home  life  nothing  can  be  said,  for  they  had  no  home  life,  even  in 
the  lowest  sense.  In  some  respects  they  seemed  below  the  level  of  beasts. 
They  sometimes  went  entirely  naked,  and  their  clothing  at  all  times  was  of 
the  scantiest.  They  lived  or  rather  herded  together  without  distinction  of 
sex  or  regard  to  family  relations;  decency  being  wholly  unknown  to  them. 
They  were  as  low  morally  as  they  were  poor  in  worldly  goods. 

Marriage  was  practically  unknown  among  them;  they  lived  together 
promiscuously.  At  times  some  of  them  lived  together  as  families,  but  there 
was  nothing  binding  in  the  arrangement,  and  members  of  the  family  could 
leave  when  they  chose. 

In  winter  they  suffered  greatly  from  the  bitter  cold  of  their  climate,  and 
they  lived,  the  Great  "Creator  only  knows  bow.  They  had  no  arms,  or 
horses,  and  were  too  lazy  or  too  ignorant  to  hunt.  They  lived  on  what  little 
meat  they  could  procure,  and  on  anything  that  grew  wild  in  the  territory 
they  roamed  over.  Sometimes  hunger  compelled  them  to  eat  grasshoppers 
and  crickets  in  order  to  save  themselves  from  starving.  They  were  also 
clay-eaters.  Altogether  they  were  the  most  miserable  people  I  have  ever  seen. 

There  was  not  an  article  in  all  their  belongings  that  another  Indian,  no 
matter  how  poor,  would  have.  They  were  never  engaged  in  war  either 
among  themselves,  the  white,  or  red  men.  It  has  been  said  that  there  is  not 
a  thing  on  earth  that  has  not  been  placed  here  by  the  wisdom  of  our  Great 
Creator,  for  some  beneficent  purpose,  yet  I  could  never  understand  why  Digger 
Indians  were  placed  on  earth,  nor  what  they  were  good  for. 

One  of  the  greatest  insults  that  could  be  offered  to  a  white  man  or  to  an 
Indian  of  another  tribe  or  nation,  was  to  compare  him  to  a  Digger  Indian,  as 
they  were  acknowledged  by  all,  to  be  the  personification  of  everything  that 
was  ignorant  and  vile.  Their  lodges,  when  they  had  any,  were  small,  dirty, 
open  affairs,  and  the  stench  coming  from  them  was  enough  to  cause  the 
strongest  stomach  to  revolt. 

In  summer,  when  lying  indolently  on  the  ground,  naked,  or  almost  so,  the 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG  OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS.  215 

meD  compelled  the  women  to  draw  the  bushes  over  them  for  shelter,  or,  if 
there  were  no  bushes,  to  pile  up  stones  or  sticks  in  such  a  manner  that  a  skin 
or  blanket  could  be  thrown  over  the  top  to  protect  the  lazy  occupants  from 
the  heat  of  the  sun.  In  winter  they  lived  in  caves,  or  in  holes  in  the 
ground,  in  which  numbers  dwelt  at  a  time  without  the  slightest  regard  for 
decency.  These  habitations  were  rarely  visited  by  white  men.  They 
reeked  with  filth  and  swarmed  with  vermin  which  the  Diggers  picked  from 
each  other's  bodies  and  heads  and  ate  with  avidity. 

They  would  surround  the  carcass  of  an  animal  which  had  been  dead  long 
enough  to  putrefy,  and  eat  it,  sometimes  raw.  The  small  amount  of  food 
that  these  miserable,  half-starved  creatures  subsisted  upon  was  surprising. 
Notwithstanding  all  this,  their  bodies  did  not  show  evil  effects  from  lack  of 
food,  or  the  poor  quality  of  the  little  they  had. 

Their  dogs,  which  were  few,  were  half-coyote  or  gray  wolf,  and,  like 
their  owners,  were  half-famished,  their  bones  almost  sticking  through  their 
hides.  Their  gaunt  bodies  and  fierce  eyes  presented  a  horrible  appearance. 

The  Diggers  were  about  the  only  people  of  Indian  origin  who  did  not  un- 
derstand the  use  of  the  sign  language.  They  had  a  dialect  which  was  under- 
stood by  all  bearing  their  name.  It  was  difficult  for  a  white  man  to  ac- 
quire it. 

In  summer  they  lived  principally  on  what  fish  they  could  catch  in  the 
streams.  These  were  secured  by  the  women,  in  small  quantities,  with  a 
scoop  net,  made  from  grasses,  fastened  to  a  hoop,  attached  to  a  pole.  The 
fish  were  eaten  raw,  or  if  they  attempted  to  cook  them  they  were  not  more 
than  half  done.  They  also  ate  frogs,  toads,  snakes,  and  insects  of  all  kinds. 

The  Diggers  were  so  low  that  none  of  their  surrounding  neighbors  ever 
went  to  war,  or  had  any  dealings  with  them.  So  repulsive  were  their  women 
that  no  person  other  than  their  own  people  ever  went  near  them. 

In  comparison  to  other  Indians,  the  Diggers  were  as  low  as  the  commonest 
tramp  is  to  decent,  well-ordered  society  among  civilized  people.  It  is  im- 
possible to  conceive  of  anything  in  the  semblance  of  humanity  presenting  a 
more  degraded  appearance. 

A'  tramp  will  migrate  from  place  to  place,  while  a  Digger  would  lie 
stretched  at  full  length  on  the  ground,  in  all  kinds  of  weather,  too  lazy  to 
stir,  and  scarcely  traveled  a  mile  in  a  week.  The  Digger  was  too  ignorant 
and  lazy  to  be  vicious,  which  was  the  only  redeeming  quality  about  him. 
He  did  not  molest  anybody,  and  no  one  molested  him.  When  one  of  them 
was  taken  sick  some  of  the  old  women  might  possibly  take  compassion  on  the 
sufferer  and  attempt  to  relieve,  or  make  him  more  comfortable.  Generally, 
however,  the  patient  was  left  to  shift  for  himself  as  best  he  could  until  he 


216  TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 

recovered  or  died.  After  death  the  body  was  dragged  a  short  distance  away 
and  left  to  be  devoured  by  their  half-starved  dogs  or  wild  animals. 

Their  amusements  or  pastimes  were  very  limited,  for  their  possessions 
were  so  few  they  had  nothing  to  gamble  with  or  stake  on  a  game  of  chance. 
They  did  not  indulge  in  any  of  the  usual  Indian  dances  or  outdoor  sports, 
such  as  running,  jumping,  ball-playing,  or  kindred  amusements. 

At  one  time  they  had  a  head  man  or  chief,  Yellow  Hand.  He  exercised 
some  little  control  over  them,  but  as  they  were  so  indolent  his  power  was 
merely  in  name ;  though  when  they  stole  from  the  whites,  he  often  caused 
the  return  of  stolen  articles. 


i 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 


217 


CHAPTER  XXV.      , 

THE  BLACKFEET— THE  SMALL-POX  EPIDEMIC— APPALLING  SCENES  OF  DEATH 
AND  DESOLATION— A  CAMP  OF  HUMAN  BONES  AND  DESERTED  LODGES. 

The  Blackfeet  Indians — How  they  got  their  Name — Their  Country — The  Neighbors  with 
whom  they  were  at  War — The  Piegans,  Bloods,  and  Gros  Ventres  of  the  Prairie 
— Their  Standing  Grudge  against  the  American  Fur  Companies — Trapping 
under  Difficulties — How  Trappers  Protected  themselves  against  the  Indians — 
Unwritten  Laws  of  the  Blackfeet — Their  Superstition  against  Fish — Their  Religious 
Belief  sand  Burial  Ceremonies — Flight  of  the  Spirit — Manner  of  Feeding  the  Spirit — 
The  Dual  Spirit — Carrying  out  Dreams — The  Small-Pox  Epidemic — How  it  Gained 
a  Foothold — Fearful  Ravages — How  they  Treated  this  Dread  Disease — Fifteen  Hun- 
dred Lodges  and  their  Dead  Abandoned — Appalling  Scenes  of  Death  and  Desolation 
— Small- Pox  Corpses  Eaten  by  Wolves. 

THE  Blackfeet  were  the 
largest,  most  fierce,  proud 
and  haughty  tribe  of  the 
Algonquin  nation.  Their 
language  was  that  of  their 
mother  tongue.  They  wore 
moccasins  and  leggings  in 
winter  made  from  the  skins 
of  black  animals  tanned 
with  the  hair  on ;  the  moc- 
casins and  leggings  made 
for  summer  use  were  also 
blackened,  and  the  tribe 
was  in  consequence  in- 
variably known  as  the 
Blackfeet.  They  were  one 
of  the  great  Indian  peoples 
of  the  Northwest.  Their 
home,  or  principal  hunting 
ground,  was  about  the 
headwaters  of  the  Missouri  and  Milk  Rivers. 

The  Blackfeet  claimed  the  country  as  far  south  as  the  Yellowstone  River, 
and  far  north  into  the  British  possessions.     They  were  an  intelligent,  and, 


BLACKFOOT  CHIEF — HEADDRESS  OF  EAGLE  FEATHERS. 


218  TWENTY    YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 

when  aroused,  an  extremely  warlike  people.  Though  living  in  a  cold  clim- 
ate, were  healthy,  hardy,  and  long-lived. 

They  were  constantly  at  war  with  the  Sioux,  Crows,  Snakes,  and  all  their 
Indian  neighbors  to  the  west.  The  battles  between  them  were  of  the  fiercest 
kind,  for  all  were  warlike  and  determined  fighters;  when  either  of  them 
encroached  on  the  hunting  grounds  of  the  other  there  was  sure  to  be  a  bloody 
and  desperate  contest. 

In  summer  their  country  teemed  with  buffalo  and  other  game,  of  which 
they  killed  large  numbers,  laying  by  a  good  store  of  meat  for  winter  use. 
Wild  horses  were  also  numerous,  and  the  Blackfeet  always  had  good 

mounts. 

The  women  made  warm  clothing  from  the  skins  of  bear,  buffalo,  buffalo 
calves,  elk  and  deer.  This  usually  consisted  of  a  jacket  and  leggings  tanned 
with  the  hair  on.  The  entire  family  dressed  in  this  manner  during  cold 
weather.  In  winter  they  made  their  camps  in  well- wooded  valleys  of 
streams,  where  forage  for  their  animals  and  fuel  for  themselves  were 
easily  procured.  These  valleys  also  afforded  considerable  protection  from 
cold  winds  and  storms. 

Their  number  was  estimated  in  early  days  at  from  twenty-five  to  thirty 
thousand  souls,  but  they  were  divided  into  many  small  tribes,  the  principal 
ones  being  the  Surches,  the  Piegans,  and  the  Gros  Ventres  of  the  Prairies. 

Trappers  generally  spoke  of  the  Blackfeet  as  being  among  the  most  peace- 
able and  well-disposed  Indians  of  any  in  the  Northwest.  From  the  earliest 
recollection  they  were  friendly  toward  the  whites,  though  they  had  a  standing 
grudge  against  the  American  Fur  Company  for  some  real  or  imaginary 
cause;  I  am  inclined  to  think  that  it  was  more  real  than  imaginary,  for  the 
Fur  Companies  were  very  unfair  and  arbitrary  in  their  dealings  with  all 
Indians.  The  Blackfeet  claimed  that  the  Fur  Companies  had  killed  several 
of  their  members  without  provocation.  When  the  Fur  Companies  made  ex- 
peditions into  the  Blackfeet  country,  it  was  necessary  for  them  to  have  from 
seventy-five  to  one  hundred  well-armed  and  equipped  men  in  each  party; 
even  then  they  were  not  safe,  for  they  were  often  attacked,  robbed  of  their 
stores,  and  killed  by  the  implacable  Blackfeet.  Their  hunting  ground  sup- 
plied a  large  number  of  beaver,  otter  and  other  valuable  pelts,  and  the  Fur 
Companies  were  not  disposed  to  abandon  this  region. 

Being  surrounded  by  so  many  tribes  speaking  different  tongues,  compelled 
them  to  use  all  the  different  sign  languages  almost  constantly.  In  conse- 
quence of  this  they  were  experts  in  the  use  of  the  sign  language  in  all  its 
branches. 

Their  home  life  was  very  simple.     lu  dealing  with  each  other  they  were 


TWENTY   YEARS  AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE    INDIANS.  219 

more  honest  than  any  other  Indians  in  that  wild  country.  The  unwritten 
laws  of  the  nation  were  few,  but  they  protected  the  rights  of  each  person 
about  as  common  sense  dictated.  They  were  nomadic,  living  in  skin-covered 
lodges  during  summer.  They  subsisted  entirely  by  the  chase.  None  of  them 
ate  any  kind  of  water  fowl,  amphibious  animal,  or  fish.  They  had  a  super- 
stition against  the  use  of  this  kind  of  food. 

They  believed  in  and  worshiped  the  Great  Spirit,  and  offered  their  prayers 
only  to  him.  Their  ideas  of  the  immortality  of  the  soul  were  beautiful. 
They  believed  that  after  death  the  soul  went  to  the  Spirit  Land.  When  it 
arrived  there  it  was  in  the  same  condition  as  when  it  left  the  earth.  During 
the  journey  it  suffered  want  and  privations;  that  the  road  traveled  was  filled 
with  many  obstacles,  which  it  must  overcome  or  avoid.  They  believed  in 
the  soul's  duality;  that  one  soul  remained  in  the  body  while  the  other  was 
groping  through  darkness  in  its  effort  to  discover  the  road  which  led  to  its 
new  home.  They  also  believed  there  was  another  spirit  which  was  sent  by 
the  Great  Creator  to  accompany  the  soul  until  its  safe  arrival  in  the  Spirit 
Land. 

The  Blackfeet  buried  their  dead  in  the  ground,  then  placed  the  implements 
of  war  and  ornaments  belonging  to  the  deceased  on  the  grave.  They  did 
not  kill  animals  at  the  grave,  like  some  other  Indians.  The  corpse,  dressed 
in  its  best  attire  and  ready  for  burial,  sometimes  sitting  and  sometimes  lying, 
presented  a  strange  appearance.  After  burial  the  friends  and  family  of  the 
deceased  visited  the  burial  place  every  night  for  a  long  time.  They  kindled 
fires  on  the  grave  that  the  spirit  of  the  departed  might  find  its  way  back  to 
the  burial  place,  to  observe  the  respect  and  affection  paid  by  relatives 
and  friends  to  the  remains  of  the  dead.  During  the  time  these  fires  were 
burning,  food  .was  left  for  the  sustenance  of  the  spirit. 

To  a  Blackfoot  there  was  no  such  thing  as  hell  or  the  Bad  Spirit.  To 
him  all  things  were  the  work  of  the  Good  Spirit.  When  evil  came  he 
claimed  it  was  the  anger  of  the  Good  Spirit  visited  upon  him,  which  he 
made  an  effort  to  appease.  They  were  firm  believers  in  dreams.  After  the 
death  of  one  of  the  family  all  dreams  the  living  had  concerning  the  dead 
were  carried  out  literally,  if  possible;  though  many  of  them  were  ludicrous 
to  every  one  except  a  Blackfoot. 

About  the  year  1837  occurred  a  memorable  epoch  in  the  history  of  the  In- 
dians of  the  Northwest.  The  small-pox  epidemic,  having  gained  a  foothold 
among  the  Indians  along  the  Missouri  River,  was  carried  from  tribe  to  tribe 
until  it  reached  the  Blackfeet  in  the  far  north,  destroying  fully  one-half  rf 
their  numbers.  The  Arickarees  were  so  terribly  depleted  by  the  scourge 
tfcmt  they  subsequently  migrated  north  and  united  with  some  of  the  neigh- 


220 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 


boring  tribes.  The  Crows  also  suffered  fearful  ravages,  but  were  not  so 
unfortunate  as  their  neighbors,  for  they  fled  to  the  mountains  as  soon  as  the 
disease  made  its  appearance  among  them.  The  havoc  made  by  the  epidemic 

was  largely  due  to  the  cold 
climate  and  ignorance  of  a 
remedy  or  proper  treatment 
for  the  afflicted.  This  was 
especially  true  of  the  Black- 
feet. 

When  this  epidemic  first 
made  its  appearance  among 
them  they  attempted  to  com- 
bat it.  Their  first  effort  to 
cure  it  was  through  the  con- 
jury  of  the  medicine  man. 
Finding  this  of  no  avail,  they 
resorted  to  heroic  treatment. 
When  the  patients  com- 
plained of  burning  with  fever 
they  were  taken  from  the 
lodges  and  rolled  in  the  snow, 
which  meant  almost  instant 
death.  Another  remedy  was 
the  steam  bath.  The  patients 
were  placed  on  heated  stones, 
over  which  water  was  poured, 
and  after  being  thoroughly 
steamed  they  were  thrown 
into  the  river.  It  is  needless 
to  say  that  they  entered  the 
river  and  the  happy  hunting 
ground  at  about  the  same 
time.  They  also  tried  other 
remedies,  but  without  effect; 
as  the  disease  spread  rapidly, 
attacking  a  great  many,  they 
finally  gave  up  in  despair, 
declaring  that  the  anger  of  the  Great  Spirit  had  been  visited  on  them  and 
threatened  to  annihilate  them.  Those  who  survived  were  disfigured  by 
great  pits  in  their  faces  and  bodies;  being  excessively  proud  of  their  personal 


TYPICAL  WARRIOR. 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS.  221 

appearance,  they  were  so  humiliated  at  sight  of  these  blemishes  and  scars 
that  some  of  them  committed  suicide.  As  suicide  was  almost  unknown 
among  the  North  American  Indians,  one  may  obtain  from  this  some  idea  of 
the  distress  of  the  Blackfeet  over  their  disfigured  appearance. 

Some  of  the  survivors  of  this  dreaded  disease  became  insane;  as  insanity 
was  something  now  to  them,  they  believed  that  the  anger  of  the  Great  Spirit 
was  specially  directed  to  those  who  had  had  the  disease.  As  the  epidemic 
visited  them  during  the  winter,  they  could  not  very  well  remove  their  camps. 
They  longed  for  the  return  of  spring,  and  as  soon  as  the  weather  per- 
mitted, left  their  camps,  leaving  the  sick  and  dead  in  the  lodges.  Up  to  the 
time  I  last  saw  them,  I  do  not  believe  that  one  of  them  had  returned  to  it. 
For  years  after  the  visitation  of  this  scourge,  the  mere  mention  of  small-pox 
almost  created  a  panic  among  them. 

The  Blackfeet,  Piegans,  and  Gros  Ventres  of  the  Prairie  suffered  so  fear- 
fully from  this  dreadful  scourge  that,  according  to  their  own  story,  more 
than  fifteen  hundred  lodges  were  abandoned  by  them.  The  lodges  were  left 
standing  with  the  bodies  of  the  dead  in  them  just  as  they  died.  The  Indians 
who  had  not  been  attacked  by  the  scourge  fled  in  every  direction,  leaving  the 
wolves  and  other  wild  animals  to  feed  on  the  remains  of  the  dead  and  occupy 
the  habitations  of  this  once  proud  and  haughty  people. 

The  scene  of  desolation  in  these  abandoned  villages  where  the  disease  had 
destroyed  so  many  Indians  was  heartrending.  The  bodies  of  the  dead  were 
stripped  of  their  flesh  by  carnivorous  animals,  and  their  white  bones  were 
strewn  everywhere.  The  deserted  lodges,  the  deathlike  silence,  and  the 
absence  of  almost  every  kind  of  life  presented  a  never-to-be-forgotten  scene, 
and  one  that  was  almost  indescribable. 

Edward  Umfreville  maintains*  that  the  Blackfeet  had  a  peculiar  manner 
of  mutilating  themselves  by  cutting  off  several  joints  of  their  fingers.  Be- 
ginning at  the  first  joint  of  the  little  finger  on  the  right  hand,  they  would 
take  it  off;  then,  after  a  short  time,  the  first  joint  of  the  next  finger;  and  so 
on  until  all  the  first  joints  of  the  fingers  on  that  hand  were  removed.  The}' 
then  did  the  same  with  the  left  hand.  Again  returning  to  the  right  hand, 
they  removed  the  next  joint  of  the  little  finger,  and  so  on  until  they  had  re- 
moved all  the  joints  of  the  fingers  on  that  hand,  and  then  proceeded  with 
the  left  as  before.  According  to  him  it  required  a  long  time  to  complete 
this  operation,  as  the  stump  of  each  finger  had  to  heal  before  the  next  joint 
was  removed. 

I  do  not  believe  that  this  mutilation  was  done  for  the  purpose  of  beautify- 

*In  "  The  Present  State  of  Hudson's  Bay,"  published  in  London,  1790. 


222 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 


ing  themselves,  as  the  author  referred  to  states,  but  was  rather  an  exhibition 
of  their  fortitude  in  enduring  pain.  I  have  seen  Indians  have  a  white  sur- 
geon extract  some  of  their  large  teeth,  which  were  perfectly  sound,  for  no 
other  purpose  than  to  show  their  fearlessness  of  pain;  and  other  Indians 

^.^..  presented    themselves    for 

the  same  operation,  and 
for  the  same  purpose,  until 
the  doctors  refused  to  ex- 
tract more  sound  teeth  to 
gratify  their  foolish 
whims. 


PIEGANS,  BLOODS, 

GROS    VENTRES     OF 

THE   PRAIRIE. 

The  Piegans,  Bloods, 
and  Gros  Ventres  of  the 
Prairie  were  three  tribes 
that  lived  to  the  west  of 
the  Blackfeet,  and  were  a 
part  of  the  same  people. 
Each  one  of  them  had  its 
own  tribal  organization, 
spoke  the  same  language, 
had  the  same  manners  and 
customs,  abided  by  the 
same  general  laws,  and 
were  known  among  them- 
selves by  their  respective 
names  and  no  other.  None 
of  these  tribes  were  at  war 

with  each  other,  but  all  lived  in  harmony.     The  Blackfeet  proper,  with  the 

three  tribes  just  named,  constituted  one  of  the  most  powerful  Indian  peoples 

in  the  Northwest. 

When  starting  on  the  warpath  warriors  of  all  the  four  tribes  often  joined 

against  a  common  enemy. 

During  winter  these  people  wore  a  warm  head  covering  reaching  to  the 


CHOPPED   UP — PIEGAN. 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG  OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS.  223 

shoulders,  covering  the  entire  head  except  the  face.  Head  coverings  were 
made  of  skins  with  the  fur  on,  or  of  a  blanket.  They  also  wore  warm  mittens 
made  of  the  same  material. 

Polygamy  was  practiced,  and  all  the  four  tribes  married  and  intermar- 
ried, thus  making  the  tribes  more  friendly  to  each  other. 


WILD      WARRIOR — LARGE     EAR      PENDANTS— EAGLE 
FEATHERS  TIPPED  WITH  SCALPS — IN  SCALPLOCK. 


324  TWENTY   YEARS  AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 


CHAPTER    XXVI. 

THE  CROWS,  OR  UPSORUKA  AS  THEY  CALLED  THEMSELVES— JAMES  BECK- 
WOURTH,  THE  FAMOUS  MULATTO  FRONTIERSMAN— LIFE  AMONG  THE 
CROWS. 

The  Crows — Driven  out  by  the  Sioux — A  Skulking,  Thievish  Race — A  Tall  and  Athletic 
People — Their  Flowing  Hair — The  Crow  Women — How  the  Crows  Attacked  Trap- 
pers and  Traders — Murdering  Entire  Expeditions — Night  Attacks — The  Home  of 
the  Beaver,  Otter,  and  other  Fur-Bearing  Animals — The  Famous  Mulatto  Trapper; 
Jim  Beckwourth — His  Alliance  with  the  Crows — His  Great  Influence  among  Them 
— His  Return  to  St.  Louis  and  Supposed  Death — Effect  of  the  Rumor  on  the  Crows — 
A  Bloody  Tragedy  Averted — Reappearance  of  Beckwourth—  A  Brave  and  Sagacious 
Man— A  Warrior  Race— Bitterness  between  the  Crows  and  Sioux — What  Happens 
after  Death. 

THE  Crows  were  originally  a  part  of  the  great  Sioux  nation,  but  were  ex- 
pelled from  their  original  hunting  ground  by  the  Sioux.  After  having  been 
driven  out  they  made  their  home  in  the  country  of  the  Flatheads,  Blackfeet, 
and  other  mountain  Indians,  and  subsequently  wrested  it  from  them. 

The  Crows  were  divided  into  three  tribes,  the  Hidatsa,  the  name  appli*^ 
to  the  Crows  proper,  the  Annahways,  and  the  Allakaweah.  The  Crows 
were  the  next  in  intelligence  and  physical  stature  to  the  Sioux.  They  were 
tall,  athletic,  and  strong  of  build,  far  surpassing  in  this  regard  most  of  their 
neighbors.  Being  originally  a  part  of  the  great  Sioux  family,  their  habits 
closely  resembled  those  of  their  ancestors,  although  they  tried  to  establish 
manners  and  customs  of  their  own,  owing  to  their  intensely  bitter  hatred  of 
the  Sioux.  Occupying  a  country  farther  removed  from  civilization  than 
almost  any  other  Indians  in  the  Northwest,  they  were  among  the  last  of  the 
red  men  to  come  in  contact  with  the  whites.  When  I  knew  them  they  were 
wilder  than  any  other  Indians  living  in  that  country.  For  a  long  time  it 
was  almost  an  impossibility  for  a  white  man  to  have  intercourse  with  them. 

While  nearly  all  Indians  of  the  far  West  were  opposed  to  the  white  man, 
none  were  more  dreaded  by  adventurous  traders  and  trappers  than  the  Crows, 
or,  as  they  called  themselves,  the  Upsoruka  or  Absoruka.  They  lived  near 
the  eastern  chain  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and  their  hunting  grounds  em- 
braced the  basins  of  the  Yellowstone,  Big  Horn,  and  Tongue  Rivers.  Their 
territory  extended  to  the  south  as  far  as  the  Sioux  would  permit  them  to  go, 


TWENTY    YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE    INDIANS. 


225 


which  was  near  the  headwaters  of  the  Yellowstone.  On  the  east  they 
roamed  to  the  vicinity  of  the  Big  Horn  River. 

They  were  skulking  and  thievish,  and  after  they  became  known  to  the 
white  man  were  noted  as  marauders,  murderers,  and  horse  thieves.  Though 
they  were,  as  a  rule,  crafty  enough  to  avoid  open  war  with  the  whites,  and 
seldom  missed  an  opportunity  to  rob  or  kill  them;  and  were  dreaded  by 
traders  and  trappers  in  all  that  region. 

They  were  almost  always  at  war  with  their  neighbors,  especially  the 


CROW    LODGES. 

Blackfeet,  who  greatly  outnumbered  them.  The  result  of  this  constant  war- 
fare was  that  the  proportion  of  women  to  the  men  was  greater  among  the 
Crows  than  among  any  of  their  neighbors. 

A  peculiar  characteristic  of  these  Indians  was  the  length  and  profusion  of 
their  hair,  which  they  cultivated  with  much  care,  and  regarded  it  as  the 
greatest  ornament  of  their  person.  It  was  not  unusual  to  see  a  Crow  Indian 
with  hair  reaching  to,  and  sweeping  the  ground.  Some  of  their  neighbors 
tried  to  imitate  this  peculiarity  by  binding  false  hair  to  the  natural  growth. 


226  TWENTY   YEARS  AMONG  OUR  HOSTILE   INDIANS. 

ID  the  construction  of  their  lodges  the  Crows  did  not  differ  materially 
from  their  neighbors.  For  winter  use  they  built  houses  of  logs  or  birch 
bark,  about  half-hut  and  half-cabin.  These  habitations  were  located  in 
some  low  and  timbered  spot,  where  they  were  protected  against  the  severe 
storms  so  prevalent  in  the  mountains.  They  were  also  used  as  breastworks 
against  attacks  from  their  enemies.  In  summer  the  Crows  were  constantly 
on  the  move,  impelled  by  their  natural  love  of  roving  and  the  necessity  of 
procuring  food. 

In  their  wanderings  the  women  were  compelled  to  do  the  work  of  putting 
up  and  taking  down  the  lodges,  packing  the  camp  belongings  on  the  horses 
and  mules,  carrying  wood,  water,  and  doing  the  cooking. 

The  Crow  women  were  among  the  best  tanners  of  any  Indian  women  in 
the  entire  West.  In  dressing  skins  they  made  them  very  soft  and  pliable 
and  almost  pure  white.  Their  clothing  was  made  of  these  neatly  prepared 
skins,  which  were  decorated  and  ornamented  with  porcupine  quills  and  bead- 
work.  Though  the  men  were  among  the  finest  specimens  of  Indian  manhood, 
the  women  did  not  appear  to  be  physically  superior  to  those  of  neighboring 
nations. 

The  Crows  were  exceedingly  troublesome  in  early  days  to  the  fur  traders 
and  trappers.  They  were  well  acquainted  with  all  the  routes  and  resorts  of 
the  trappers,  and  knew  where  to  find  them  in  the  trapping  season,  as  well  as 
where  they  were  stationed  in  winter;  they  often  made  raids  on  them,  killing 
all  the  men  in  the  expeditions,  securing  their  entire  equipments  and  outfits. 

The  various  Fur  Companies  were  justly  apprehensive  of  the  safety  of 
every  expedition  they  sent  into  the  Crow  hunting  ground.  Every  party  of 
trappers  that  entered  this  country  had  a  larger  number  of  men  and  a  better 
outfit  than  was  considered  necessary  for  any  other  territory.  The  Crow 
country  was  the  natural  home  of  fur- bearing  animals,  and  more  valuable 
pelts  could  be  secured  there  than  in  other  regions.  At  times  the  trappers 
were  compelled  to  abandon  it  for  a  long  period,  through  fear  of  these 
Indians,  for  the  Crows  were  nearly  always  on  the  warpath ;  and  if  a  war 
party  came  up  on  a  trapping  expedition,  if  they  did  not  kill  the  entire  party, 
they  were  liable  to  take  their  belongings,  and  let  the  trappers  subsist,  or 
escape,  as  best  they  could.  Sometimes  war  parties  went  on  foot  the  better 
to  skulk  through  the  mountains,  where  they  could  surprise  and  ambush 
trappers. 

The  Crows  frequently  attacked  their  enemies  at  night,  hoping  to  precipi- 
tate a  panic  by  making  a  sudden  and  furious  dash.  Should  the  attacked 
make  a  determined  stand,  the  Crows  skulked  off  to  a  safe  place,  and  made 
another  attempt  later  on. 


TWENTY    YEARS  AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS.  227 

For  the  privilege  of  trapping  in  their  country  the  Hudson  Bay  Fur  Com- 
pany supplied  the  Crows  with  arms  and  ammunition.  When  they  badn 
plenty  of  ammunition  they  were  aggressive,  and  made  war  on  all  people 
they  could  reach. 

The  rivalry  between  the  different  Fur  Companies  finally  became  so  fierce 
that  tbey  would  take  almost  any  hazard  to  trap  in  the  country  of  the  Crows. 
The  result  was,  that  it  was  overrun  by  numerous  expeditions,  which  were 
themselves  victimized  by  individual  white  trappers  and  traders,  who  led  the 
Crows  into  many  excesses. 

Jamed  Beckwourth,  a  mulatto — popularly  known  as  "Jim"  Beckwourth 
— was  a  trapper  who  went  from  St.  Louis  into  this  country  in  the  employ  of 
a  fur  company.  He  and  others  of  the  party  suffered  great  privations  on 
their  first  expedition,  and  would  perhaps  have  perished  but  for  the  aid  of 
some  Indians.  Having  returned  to  St.  Louis,  he  was  prevailed  upon  to 
make  another  trip  to  the  headquarters  of  the  fur  company  in  the  Rocky 
Mountains.  He  traded  for  a  time  with  the  Blaekfeet,  among  whom  he  had 
many  alleged  adventures,  finally  making  his  way  into  the  Crow  country. 
He  soon  acquired  considerable  fame  among  the  hunters  for  his  skill,  and 
among  the  Indians,  he  was  regarded  as  a  brave.  It  is  said  that  one  of  his 
companions  persuaded  the  Crows  that  Beckwourth  was  a  Crow  who  had 
been  captured  in  one  of  their  wars  with  the  northern  Cheyennes,  some 
twenty  years  before,  and  sold  by  the  latter  to  the  whites.  At  any  rate,  he 
was  adopted  into  the  Crow  tribe.  It  has  been  claimed  that  he  became  chief 
of  the  tribe,  but  there  is  no  evidence  of  the  truth  of  this  statement.  It  is, 
however,  certain  that  Beckwourth  acquired  considerable  influence  among 
the  Crows.  He  was  brave,  adventurous,  sagacious,  and  was  therefore 
greatly  admired  by  them.  He  accompanied  them  in  their  raids,  wars  and 
hunts,  and  impressed  them  by  his  courage  and  skill. 

Beckwourth  returned  to  St.  Louis  some  years  afterward.  A  party  of  trap- 
pers who  had  heard  of  his  departure  told  the  Crows  that  he  had  been  killed 
by  the  great  white  chief,  because  he  had  lived  among  the  Indians. 

This  story  created  much  excitement  among  the  Crows,  who,  after  a  coun- 
cil, determined  to  kill  all  the  white  men  at  the  trading  post,  and  then  send  out 
parties  to  kill  all  the  whites  in  that  section  of  country.  The  director  of  the 
trading  post  prevailed  on  the  Indians  to  wait  until  he  should  send  to  St. 
Louis  and  bring  Beckwourth  back.  This  was  reluctantly  agreed  to  by  the 
Crows,  and  after  several  months,  Beckwourth  again  made  his  appearance, 
having  traveled  the  distance  of  two  thousand  seven  hundred  miles  in  fifty- 
three  days,  a  great  feat  at  that  time.  After  his  return  the  Crows  were  much 
more  friendly  toward  the  whites.  ,  .,,, 


228  TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG  OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 

Since  I  left  that  country  I  have  read  and  heard  much  of  the  adventures 
and  daring  exploits  of  Jim  Beckwourth.  I  knew  him  well.  The  greater 
part  of  these  stories  belong  to  fiction ;  for,  at  that  time  the  entire  country 
north  of  the  Platte  River  as  far  as  the  British  possessions  did  not  contain 
more  than  a  few  hundred  white  men.  The  character  and  doings  of  these 
were  well  known  to  each  other,  and  to  all  the  people  throughout  this 
vast  territory.  Among  them  Beckwourth  did  not  have  the  credit  of  being 
anything  more  than  an  ordinary  trapper  and  mountaineer,  who  had  become 
by  marriage  a  member  of  the  Crow  people,  and  lived  the  life  of  the  Indian. 

As  warriors  the  Crows  were  equal  to  any  Indians  in  that  part  of  the  coun- 
try. Being  trespassers  on  the  hunting  grounds  of  their  neighbors,  they 
incurred  the  hatred  of  tribes  on  the  east,  north,  and  west  of  them.  As  the 
Crows  were  renegade  Sioux,  and  their  neighbors  on  the  south  were  also 
Sioux,  the  feeling  between  them  was  intensely  bitter.  Hence,  they  were 
entirely  surrounded  by  enemies.  They  had  frequent  and  bloody  battles  in 
which  they  held  their  own;  but  if  any  of  their  neighbors  had  allied,  and 
made  war  on  them  it  would  have  been  disastrous  for  the  Crows. 

Some  of  the  battles  fought  between  the  Sioux,  Blackfeet,  and  Snakes 
against  the  Crows  were  of  the  fiercest,  and  had  the  latter  not  been  warriors 
of  superior  ability,  their  numbers  would  have  been  greatly  reduced. 

A-ra-poo-ash  was  a  noted  chief  among  them.  He  was  the  hero  of  scores 
of  battles  and  encounters,  principally  with  the  Blackfeet,  the  hereditary  and 
inveterate  enemies  of  the  Crows.  On  one  occasion  a  large  party  of  Blackfeet 
made  a  raid  into  the  Crow  territory,  killing  a  number  of  them,  capturing 
nearly  all  their  animals,  carrying  off  many  of  their  women  and  children, 
and  committing  the  usual  Indian  depredations. 

A-ra-poo-ash,  smarting  under  the  effects  of  this  unexpected  raid,  called 
his  warriors  together.  He  then  harangued  them,  exciting  them  to  wild 
frenzy  by  his  talk  on  the  humiliation  of  their  surprise  and  loss.  A  war 
party  was  at  once  formed  to  pursue  the  Blackfeet  for  the  purpose  of  rescuing 
their  women  and  children  and  recovering  their  animals.  The  Crows  had 
but  few  animals  left;  these  were  used  for  packing  purposes  only,  the  warriors 
going  on  foot.  After  traveling  almost  incessantly  for  several  days  and 
nights,  they  overtook  the  Blackfeet. 

A  bloody  battle  ensued.  The  Blackfeet  greatly  outnumbered  the 
Crows,  and  being  well  mounted,  the  latter  were  at  a  disadvantage  from 
the  first.  The  Crows,  led  by  A-ra-poo-ash,  formed  themselves  in  a  circle, 
keeping  the  Blackfeet  at  a  distance  for  a  short  time.  A-ra-poo-ash  then 
called  upon  the  warriors  to  charge  the  enemy  in  full  force  and  rescue  the 
captives.  The  charge  was  so  impetuous  that  the  Blackfeet  were  thrown 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS.  229 

back  in  confusion,  and  a  number  of  captives  were  rescued.  The  Blackfeet 
at  once  sent  the  remaining  captives,  under  a  strong  guard  of  dismounted 
warriors,  up  a  ravine  thick  with  underbrush.  A-ra-poo-ash  on  discovering 
this  move  directed  the  main  body  of  his  warriors  to  continue  the  battle,  then 
taking  with  him  some  twenty  braves  started  for  the  place  where  the  captives 
were  concealed.  Here  a  fierce  and  bloody  encounter  took  place,  and,  what 
was  unusual  in  Indian  warfare,  both  parties  fought  on  foot.  Under  the 
direction  of  their  great  leader  the  Crows  fought  with  the  ferocity  of  tigers. 

A-ra-poo-ash,  seeing  that  his  party  had  exhausted  nearly  all  their  ammu- 
nition, now  drew  his  knife,  brandished  it  above  his  head,  shouting  to  his 
warriors  to  follow  him,  and  cut  the  enemy  to  pieces.  A-ra-poo-ash  led 
the  attack  and  disemboweled  the  first  Blackfoot  he  met  with  a  stroke 
of  his  knife.  He  then  rushed  upon  another,  and  nearly  severed  his 
head  from  his  body.  He  then  attacked  the  third,  but  before  he  could  strike, 
a  lance  in  the  hand  of  a  Blackfoot  was  plunged  through  his  body,  inflicting 
a  mortal  wound.  Thus  died  the  great  A-ra-poo-ash,  the  hero  of  scores  of 
battles,  the  Napoleon  of  his  people. 

As  soon  as  their  chief  fell  the  Crows  returned  to  the  main  body.  Being 
without  a  leader  they  ceased  to  be  aggressive  and  sought  places  of  safety 
among  the  rocks,  where  they  remained  until  dark,  when  they  started  for 
their  own  hunting  ground. 

In  this  battle  many  warriors  on  both  sides  were  killed.  Many  of  the  cap- 
tives were  also  killed,  not  only  by  the  enemy  but  by  their  own  people,  for 
they  were  intentionally  placed  by  their  captors  in  an  exposed  position. 
This  battle  was  a  great  blow  to  the  Crows,  and  it  was  a  long  time  before 
they  recovered  from  its  effects. 

This  is  the  true  story  of  this  bloody  fight  as  given  both  by  the  Blackfeet  and 
the  Crows  themselves,  at  the  time.  I  heard  it  translated  by  Jim  Beck- 
wourth,  just  as  it  was  narrated  to  him  by  the  Crows.  Jim  was  then  living 
with  the  Crows,  and  had  at  least  one  of  their  women  for  a  wife. 

The  Crows  had  little  religious  belief.  Unlike  the  Sioux,  they  believed 
only  in  the  Good  Spirit.  When  evil  befell  them  they  believed  that  it  was 
the  work  of  the  Good  Spirit  who  was  punishing  them  for  some  wrong  they 
had  committed.  When  one  of  their  number  recovered  from  sickness  or 
grievous  affliction,  they  believed  that  the  anger  of  the  Good  Spirit  was  ap- 
peased and  that  they  had  gained  his  favor,  after  which  they  indulged  in 
feasting,  rejoicing  and  dancing. 

The  one  portion  of  the  Sioux  belief  which  they  tried  hard  to  change  to 
suit  themselves  was  in  relation  to  the  Great  Spirit  and  the  soul.  They  be- 
lieved that  the  soul  left  the  body  through  the  mouth ;  that  it  was  a  shadow 


230  TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG  OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 

which  hovered  about  the  corpse  until  it  began  to  decay;  and  that  the  smell 
from  the  putrefying  remains  drove  it  farther  and  farther  away  until  it 
started  on  its  journey  to  the  Spirit  Land.  They  believed  that  the  road 
which  the  soul  traveled  was  the  same  by  which  all  souls  had  gone  before. 
This  road  was  broad  and  well  beaten  by  numerous  spirit  travelers.  It 
crossed  many  swift-running  waters,  tall  mountains,  and  dense  forests,  and 
led  direct  to  the  west,  where  the  setting  sun  lighted  the  soul  into  paradise. 
When  the  soul  finally  arrived  in  the  Spirit  Land  the  souls  of  all  members 
of  the  tribe  that  had  gone  before  were  in  readiness  to  meet  it.  The  new 
arrival  was  welcomed  by  dances  and  merry-making.  The  Crows  believed 
that  it  took  the  soul  a  long  time  to  make  this  journey,  but  they  had  no  idea 
of  the  condition  it  arrived  in,  whether  in  the  form  it  left  the  earth,  or  as  a 
child  or  adult,  mutilated  or  whole.  They  believed,  however,  that  the  soul 
arrived  in  perfect  condition  to  enjoy  life  forever  after  in  its  new  home. 

The  Minitari,  or  Hidatsa,  were  an  offshoot  of  the  Crows,  from  whom  they 
separated  a  long  time  ago.  They  held  friendly  intercourse  with  the  Man- 
dans,  but  were  particularly  hostile  towards  the  Snakes  and  Flatheads. 
From  the  time  they  were  first  visited  by  white  men  they  were  peaceably  in- 
clined toward  them.  Trappers  and  traders  secured  from  them  more  valuable 
pelts  than  from  any  other  nation  or  tribe  of  Indians,  per  capita,  in  the 
Northwest. 

In  habits  and  manners  little  is  to  be  said  about  the  Minitari  that  has  not 
been  said  about  the  Crows. 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS.  231 


CHAPTER  XXVII. 

THE  FLATHEADS— HOW  THEY  GOT  THEIR  NAME— PECULIAR  CUSTOMS— FLAT 
TENING  HEADS  OF  CHILDREN  A  MARK  OF  BEAUTY. 

The  Flatheads — Their  Peculiar  Language— Their  Habitations,  Food,  and  Clothing — How 
the  Women  gathered  Camas — Peculiar  Manner  of  Cooking  it — How  they  caught 
Wild  Horses — Manner  of  catching  Fish — Bone  Fish-hooks— How  they  Cooked  Fish 
—Fine  Boatmen — How  the  Flatheads  got  their  Name — Manner  of  Flattening  the 
Heads — A  Peculiar  Custom — Position  of  a  Child  during  the  Process — Appearance 
of  the  Head  having  been  Flattened — A  Deformity  that  was  Considered  a  Mark  of 
Beauty. 

THE  Flatheads  were  a  part  of  the  Selish  nation,  and  their  original  home 
was  in  the  vicinity  of  Flathead  Lake,  which  lies  east  of  the  Bitter  Root 
Mountains,  and  west  of  the  main  divide  of  the  Rocky  Mountains;  their 
hunting  ground  extended  to  the  eastern  side  of  this  chain.  At  the  time  of 
which  I  write  all  the  Indians  in  this  vicinity  were  known  as  Flatheads. 
They  were  subsequently  divided  into  three  different  tribes,  namely,  the 
Flatheads  proper,  the  Pen  d'Oreilles,  and  the  Kootenai. 

The  dialects  of  all  three  sprang  from  the  same  mother  tongue,  though  the 
dialect  of  the  Kootenai  differed  from  the  other  two  very  materially.  Their 
language  was  poor  and  exceedingly  difficult  of  pronunciation.  The  three 
tribes  lived  together  in  harmony,  married  and  intermarried  with  each  other; 
and  all  were  constantly  at  war  with  their  neighbors  on  the  south  and 
west. 

They  suffered  severely  in  winter  from  the  climate;  as  game  in  their 
region  during  severe  cold  weather  was  scarce,  they  were  often  on  the  verge 
of  starvation.  In  winter  their  habitations  were  frequently  made  from  logs 
and  plastered  with  mud.  Some  of  them  were  made  of  the  trunks  of  trees; 
these  were  large  and  commodious,  being  from  seventy  to  eighty  feet  in 
length,  twenty-five  to  thirty  feet  in  width,  and  eight  to  ten  feet  in  height. 
These  large  houses  were  not  divided  into  rooms,  and  many  families  occupied 
the  habitation  together,  though  there  was  nothing  in  common  among  them 
except  the  dwelling  place.  For  heating,  a  hole  was  dug  in  the  ground,  in 
which  a  fire  was  made.  Sometimes  the  houses  were  built  on  the  lee  side  of  a 
bluff,  and  a  high  wind  after  a  severe  snowstorm  covered  them  with  snow 
to  a  great  depth,  so  that  the  inmates  were  compelled  to  dig  their  way  out 


232  TWENTY   YEARS  AMONG  OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 

through  tunnels  to  the  open.  The  snow  covering  kept  the  houses  warm, 
and  it  usually  remained  undisturbed  until  it  melted  in  the  spring. 

In  summer  game  was  abundant  in  the  Flathead  country,  and  many  kinds 
of  natural  fruits  and  vegetables  grew  wild  all  over  their  hunting  ground. 
Of  these  the  camas  was,  perhaps,  the  most  important.  It  is  a  small  onion, 
white  and  insipid  when  first  taken  from  the  earth,  but  black  and  sweet  when 
prepared  for  food.  The  women  provided  themselves  with  long  crooked 
sticks  when  going  in  search  of  the  camas;  having  procured  a  quantity  after 
long  and  painful  labor,  they  dug  a  hole  in  the  ground  from  twelve  to  fifteen 
inches  deep.  The  bottom  was  then  covered  with  a  kind  of  cement,  made 
red  hot.  This  was  covered  with  fresh  grass  or  wet  hay,  on  which  was  placed 
a  layer  of  camas,  then  another  layer  of  wet  hay  and  a  third  of  bark — the 
latter  overlaid  with  mold,  on  which  a  fire  was  kept  burning  for  fifty,  sixty, 
and  sometimes  seventy  hours.  The  camas  thus  acquired  the  consistency  of 
thick  paste;  this  was  often  made  into  loaves.  It  was  excellent  food,  espe- 
cially when  boiled  with  meat.  If  kept  dry  it  could  be  preserved  almost  in- 
definitely. 

For  winter  wear  they  made  clothing  of  skins  with  the  hair  on,  usually 
that  of  the  buffalo,  elk,  deer,  bear,  wolves,  horses  and  dogs.  What  little 
clothing  they  wore  during  summer  was  made  of  poorly  tanned  skins. 

They  were  exceedingly  filthy,  especially  the  Kootenai.  They  were  fond 
of  home  life,  generally  happy  and  contented,  and,  strange  to  say,  were 
almost  monogamous. 

In  summer  they  were  nomadic,  traveling  all  over  the  territory  claimed  by 
them  in  search  of  game.  When  on  roving  expeditions  their  lodges  were 
made  by  drawing  the  tops  of  bushes  together  and  throwing  skins  over  them. 
The  women  did  the  cooking  and  drudgery  of  the  camp;  dressed  and  tanned 
the  hides,  and  made  all  the  personal  and  camp  equipage.  The  men  killed 
the  game  necessary  for  food,  and  loafed  the  rest  of  the  time.  In  summer 
there  was  an  abundance  of  deer  of  various  kinds,  as  well  as  antelope,  elk,  and 
buffalo  in  their  territory.  The  latter  came  from  the  south  during  the  month 
of  June,  when  the  Flatheads  killed  them  in  large  numbers,  all  hands  joining 
in  jerking  and  drying  the  meat  for  winter  use. 

Wild  horses  were  also  plentiful.  These  they  secured  in  various  ways,  gen- 
erally by  driving  them  into  an  enclosure  previously  prepared  in  the  timber. 
After  breaking  and  getting  them  ready  for  service,  they  were  used  for  rac- 
ing, hunting  buffalo,  and  for  general  purposes.  Horses  lasted  but  a  little 
time  with  these  people,  for  they  were  cruel  masters.  In  winter  horses  were 
used  for  food. 

Many  mountain  streams,  whose  waters  were  fed  by  springs  and  melting 


TWENTY   YEARS  AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE    INDIANS.  233 

snows  of  the  high  mountains,  flowed  through  their  country.  The  water  of 
these  streams  was  as  clear  as  crystal,  and  was  filled  with  many  varieties 
of  fish.  They  made  nets  of  silk  grass  and  fibrous  bark  of  the  white  cedar,  and 
used  lines  made  from  the  same  material.  Before  the  white  man  invaded 
their  country  fishing  hooks  were  made  from  the  bones  of  animals ;  although  not 
very  serviceable,  they  managed  to  catch  a  few  fish  with  them.  After  the 
advent  of  the  whites  modern  fish-hooks  were  used.  In  cooking  fish  and  food, 
in  general,  they  used  kettles  made  of  cedar  wood ;  in  these  they  placed  heated 
stones,  taking  them  out  and  replacing  them  with  others,  repeating  the  proc- 
ess until  the  water  boiled,  partly  cooking  the  fish  or  meat. 

Although  of  a  low  order  of  intelligence,  theft  among  themselves  was  rare. 
Murder  was  also  rare;  if  it  happened  the  offender  was  compelled  to  compro- 
mise with  the  relatives  of  the  victim  by  a  satisfactory  payment  of  horses  or 
other  articles  of  value. 

They  surpassed  most  Indians  in  the  manufacture  of  canoes,  which  they 
made  from  trunks  of  the  white  cedar,  birch  and  fir  trees.  Some  of  the  boats 
were  fifty  feet  long,  and  were  capable  of  carrying  from  twenty-five  to  thirty 
persons.  In  handling  canoes  they  were  expert.  While  using  them,  one  of 
their  number  sat  in  the  stern,  steering  with  a  paddle.  Others  knelt  on  the 
bottom  of  the  boat  while  paddling,  and,  in  deep  water,  drove  the  boat  along 
with  great  rapidity.  In  shallow  water  they  propelled  them  with  a  pole  or 
paddle. 

The  name  Flathead  was  derived  from  a  peculiar  custom  of  flattening  the 
heads  of  their  children.  This  deformity  was  produced  by  pressure  upon  the 
forehead  of  the  young  child  while  the  skull  was  soft.  The  infant  was  placed 
on  its  back  on  a  piece  of  bark  or  slab  of  wood.  At  the  end  of  this  piece  was 
fastened  a  shorter  piece,  which  was  pressed  over  the  forehead  of  the  infant, 
the  two  pieces  of  wood  somewhat  resembling  the  letter  V.  The  end  of  the 
piece  of  wood  below  the  face  was  fastened  down  with  thongs  to  the  under 
board,  and  as  the  bone  receded  or  yielded  to  the  pressure  brought  upon  it  the 
thongs  were  tightened  more  and  more  until  the  head  assumed  the  desired 
shape.  Some  heads  became  so  flattened  by  this  process  that  there  was  a 
straight  line  from  the  tip  of  the  nose  to  the  apex  of  the  deformed  skull. 
Not  more  than  a  few  months  were  required  for  the  operation,  after  which 
the  head  did  not  resume  its  normal  shape.  The  custom  produced  no  notice- 
able change  in  the  intellect  of  the  person  so  deformed.  In  no  other  nation 
or  tribe  of  North  American  Indians  was  this  custom  practiced,  except  among 
the  Chinooks,  who  were  a  part  of  the  same  family.  A  flat  head  was  consid- 
ered a  mark  of  beauty,  the  flatter  it  was  the  more  they  admired  it. 

They  took  great  care  of  their  hair,  parting  it  in  the  middle  and  allowing  it  to 


234  TWENTY   YEARS  AMONG  OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 

bang  down  on  both  sides.  Tbe  hair  on  one  of  these  flattened  heads,  com- 
mencing near  the  eyebrow  and  running  to  the  apex,  presented  a  peculiar  ap- 
pearance. When  riding  rapidly  the  hair  streamed  from  the  flattened  heads, 
presenting  the  appearance  of  a  flag  of  hair. 

Their  primitive  weapons  were  very  inferior.  Some  of  their  arrow  points 
were  made  of  roots  of  trees  or  shrubs,  and  were  fastened  to  the  staff  with 
sinews  or  thongs. 

Saddles  made  by  them  were  also  of  the  poorest  pattern  and  make.  In 
making  these  two  crooked  sticks  were  used  for  the  pommel  and  cantle;  these 
were  fastened  to  two  pieces  of  wood,  then  covered  with  rawhide,  bound  to- 
gether with  rawhide  thongs. 

As  a  protection  for  the  feet  they  made  a  sandal  of  flint  hide.  This  was 
secured  to  the  feet  with  thongs  passed  between  the  toes  and  tied  around  the 
ankle. 

All  of  their  personal  effects  were  of  the  poorest,  and  everything  they 
had  or  made  was  for  utility,  and  not  for  ornament. 

They  were  skilled  in  no  kind  of  handiwork  for  ornamenting  their  clothing 
or  belongings. 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG  OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 


235 


CHAPTER    XXVIII. 

THE  KIOWAS— A  PART  OF  THE  SHOSHONEE  NATION— BRAVE,  TREACHEROUS 
AND  CUNNING— SOME  FAMOUS  CHIEFS— RAIDS  AND  WARS. 

The  Kiowas — Part  of  the  Shoshonee  Family — Originally  from  the  Far  North— Hunting 
Ground  in  the  Black  Hills — Driven  Out  by  the  Sioux — Their  Last  Home — Charac- 
teristics of  the  Kiowas — A  Murderous  People — Treacherous,  Cunning  and  Vicious — 
Stealing  from  each  other — How  Stolen  Property  was  Returned — Medicine  Men — 
Death  of  Santanta — Raids  into  Mexico — Their  Alliances — Their  Personal  Appearance. 

THE  Kiowas  were  the  most  cleanly,  intelligent,   and    best 
warriors  of  the  Shoshonee  nation. 

Coming  in  contact  with  so  many  different  Indian 
tribes,  as  well  as  the  whites,  they  had  better  opportunities 
to  inform  themselves  than  any  other  portion  of  this  family. 
They  did  not  keep  to  themselves  like  many  others,  but 
allied  at  times  with  their  neighbors,  and  observing  the 
characteristics  and  customs  of  others  improved  themselves 
accordingly. 

The  Kiowas  have  long  been  known  as  southern  plains 
Indians;  but  originally  they  came  from  the  far  north. 
On  account  of  their  vicious  disposition  and  thieving  pro- 
pensities, were  driven  away.  Moving  south,  tented  about 
the  headwaters  of  the  Missouri  River  and  its  tributaries. 

Here  the  Sioux  attacked  them,  driving  them  farther  to 
the  south.  Again  they  made  an  effort  to  locate  in  the 
Black  Hills,  in  what  is  now  Wyoming.  From  here  the 
Sioux  drove  them  farther  south  along  the  foothills  of 
the  mountains  through  Colorado. 

Finally  reaching  the  Arkansas  River,  where  they  met 
the  Comauches,  who  resisted  their  farther  advance.  A 
long  and  bloody  war  ensued,  which  was  finally  ended  through  a  Spanish 
trader.  A  treaty  and  alliance  of  the  two  people  was  made,  and  the 
Kiowas  were  permitted  to  occupy  that  territory  until  their  final  round-up. 
The  countrv  claimed  by  them  as  their  hunting  ground  embraced  the  ter- 


CHILD'S  RATTLE. 


236  TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 

ritory  as  far  north  as  somewhere  about  what  is  now  the  southern  portion  of 
Colorado,  and  Kansas,  and  on  the  west  to  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and  on  the 
south  far  into  Texas. 

At  one  time  they  roamed  over  the  country  on  the  east  to  the  Mississippi 

River. 

The  Kiowas  were  restless,  roving  and  constantly  on  the  move,  and  %knew 
every  portion  of  the  country  for  hundreds  of  miles  in  every  direction,  and 
also  knew  of  every  wagon  train,  or  settler,  within  their  territory.  These 
they  raided  at  every  opportunity. 

They  were  constantly  on  raiding  and  marauding  expeditions,  and  killed 
more  people  per  capita  than  any  Indians  of  the  entire  West. 

After  an  expedition  in  which  they  had  killed  many  people,  and  captured 
much  property,  they  immediately  sought  refuge  in  the  canons  of  the  moun- 
tains, where  they  remained  until  they  could  reconnoiter  and  learn  if  it  was 
again  safe  to  return  to  the  open  country. 

About  1868  or  1869  they  raided  the  settlers  in  the  northern  part  of  Texas, 
killing  many  of  them,  securing  the  animals  and  effects  and  carrying  many 
women  and  children  into  captivity.  It  was  not  until  after  this  raid  that  the 
Government  determined  to  chastise  them  for  this  and  former  misdeeds,  and 
after  a  sustained  effort  succeeded  in  capturing  a  party  of  them.  Among  the 
number  taken  were  two  Comanche  chiefs,  Santanta  and  Big  Tree,  and  two 
Kiowa  chiefs.  All  four  were  sent  to  Jacksboro,  Texas,  where  they  were 
tried  for  their  crimes;  having  been  found  guilty  were  sentenced  to  death. 
This  was  commuted  to  life  imprisonment,  the  United  States  Government 
interfering  with  the  State  authorities;  they  were  not  only  not  executed  but 
liberated.  After  being  set  free  each  went  to  his  own  people,  and  was  as 
hostile  and  turbulent  as  ever,  though  their  raids  on  settlers  were  leps  fre- 
quent. 

Some  time  afterward  the  Kiowas,  Comanches,  and  some  others  went  on 
the  warpath  for  nearly  a  year.  It  was  not  long  before  Santanta  was  rear- 
rested  and  sent  to  Texas  to  serve  out  his  life  sentence.  After  vainly  waiting 
for  some  time  expecting  release,  he  committed  suicide  by  jumping  from  a 
second-story  window  with  shackles  on  his  limbs,  dashing  his  brains  out  on 
the  pavement  below. 

The  Kiowas  often  made  alliances  with  the  Comanches  and  Apaches. 
When  these  allied  nations  went  on  the  warpath  they  made  a  strong  party, 
and  swept  the  entire  country  over  which  they  roamed.  When  alliances 
were  thus  made  and  a  raid  was  determined  upon,  they  laid  out  one  route 
only  at  a  time.  This  route  might  be  a  raid  on  the  Arapahoes  and  Chey- 
ennes,  their  neighbors  to  the  north,  or  the  Sioux  along  the  Platte  River. 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 

If  they  were  successful  each  party  returned  to  its  own  people  with  its  share 
of  the  plunder.  Arrangements  having  been  previously  made  they  met  again 
to  make  similar  raids  on  the  people  to  the  east,  and  in  this  way  succeeded  in 
doing  an  immense  amount  of  damage. 

The  feeling  between  the  Kiowas  and  the  Sioux  was  extremely  bitter,  and 


KIOWA    CAMP — ARKANSAS    RIVER. 

war  parties  from  each  nation  were  constantly  making  raids  into  the  territory 
of  the  other.  As  the  Kiowas  always  had  a  good  supply  of  horses  and  mules, 
the  raids  by  the  Sioux  were  frequent,  the  chance  of  securing  a  large  number 
of  animals  being  a  great  temptation  to  them. 

As  they  were  not  numerically  strong,  it  was  necessary  for  them  to  have 
allies,  that  they  might  make  successful  raids,  as  well  as  resist  the  encroach- 
ments of  their  neighbors  and  enemies  from  the  north. 

In  the  use  of  the  sign  language  by  their  hands,  the  horse,  fire,  smoke,  and 
the  mirror  they  were  the  most  proficient  of  any  wild  Indians  in  the  southern 
portion  of  this  country.  They  were  also  one  of  the  most  expert  body  of 
Indians  in  following  the  trail,  as  well  as  in  eluding  pursuit. 

As  warriors  the  Kiowas  were  brave,  artful  and  cunning.  They  did  not 
go  to  war  as  frequently  as  many  other  Indians,  but  when  they  did  they 


238  TWENTY   YEARS  AMONG   OUR  HOSTILE   INDIANS. 

killed  and  captured  everything  they  could  reach.  They  were  among  the 
first  Indians  in  the  southern  country  to  come  in  contact  with  the  white  man, 
as  the  Santa  Fe  trail  passed  directly  through  their  country.  They  were  also 
among  the  first  to  acquire  modern  firearms  and  articles  of  civilization,  as 
well  as  many  of  its  vices.  This  added  to  their  Indian  cunning,  made  them 
the  terror  of  all  trainsmen  and  travelers,  whom  they  constantly  harassed 
and  kept  in  a  continual  state  of  anxiety. 

The  country  which  they  occupied  had  a  fine  climate,  rarely  being  very 
cold  in  winter  or  hot  in  summer;  therefore  they  did  not  require  much  clothing 
or  shelter,  and  could  go  from  place  to  place  with  ease.  Game  of  all  kinds 
was  in  abundance,  and  for  Indians,  they  lived  well.  In  their  home  life 
they  were  more  cleanly,  and  less  brutal  to  the  women  and  animals  than  any 
other  portion  of  the  Shoshonee  nation. 

They  had  peculiar  ideas  concerning  property.  Among  most  Indians  theft 
outside  of  the  nation  was  permitted  and  looked  upon  as  honorable;  but 
among  the  Kiowas,  stealing  from  each  other  was  not  only  permissible  but 
considered  and  practiced  as  an  art.  Despite  this  constant  stealing  among 
themselves,  they  rarely  came  into  personal  combat;  when  they  did  so,  one 
Indian  killed  the  other,  and  that  ended  it.  They  seemed  to  consider  theft 
from  each  other  as  a  matter  of  course,  and  in  endeavoring  to  secure  the 
return  of  stolen  property  they  usually  tried  to  do  so  without  appealing  to  the 
chiefs  or  head  men,  but  by  compromise  between  each  other.  With  their 
limited  amount  of  worldly  possessions  it  was  not  difficult  for  an  Indian  to 
trace  the  articles  which  had  been  taken  from  him.  When  the  stolen  prop- 
erty was  discovered,  the  barter  commenced.  The  thief,  considering  pos- 
session a  strong  argument,  made  an  effort  to  secure  from  the  owner  the 
best  terms  possible  before  giving  up  the  property.  When  the  interested  par- 
ties could  not  agree  they  appealed  to  some  head  man,  who  settled  the 
difficulty. 

The  Kiowas  were  more  unreasonable,  unreliable,  and  intractable  than  any 
of  the  surrounding  neighbors,  except  the  Comancb.es,  with  whom  they  have 
been  allied  for  a  very  long  time. 

Polygamy  was  practiced,  but  not  to  such  a  great  extent  as  among  many 
other  Indians.  Like  most  Indians  the  women  were  not  prolific,  and  they 
did  not  increase  in  numbers  rapidly. 

The  medicine  men  had  great  influence  with  them,  and  many  of  their 
superstitious  rites  were  attended  with  much  ceremony. 

They  had  little  religious  belief  outside  of  the  medicine  men. 

In  treating  the  sick  the  medicine  men  were  depended  upon  almost 
entirely. 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG  OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS.  239 

The  burial  of  dead  bodies  of  the  Kiowas  was  the  same  as  that  of  the  Sho- 
shonee  family  in  general. 

This  group  was  divided  into  five  or  six  tribes,  each  under  its  own  chief, 
and  each  tribe  was  known  among  themselves  by  its  own  name;  but  to  the 
whites  they  were  all  known  as  Kiowas. 

At  one  time  they  had  three  very  prominent,  daring  and  dangerous  chiefs. 
Santanta,  "styled  the  orator  of  Indians,"  Big  Tree,  and  Black  Eagle.  These 
three  Indians  were  responsible  for  more  loss  of  life  and  property,  as  well  as 
carrying  into  captivity  more  women  and  children,  than  any  other  three  men 
known  to  American  history. 

War  parties  of  Kiowas  often  went  through  Texas  to  the  country  of  their 
friends  and  allies,  the  Comanches.  When  warriors  of  the  latter  joined  them, 
they  frequently  swept  the  country  as  far  as  the  present  States  of  Durango, 
Zacatecas  and  Chihuahua,  killing  many  people,  capturing  many  animals,  and 
carrying  away  much  property.  For  years  the  Mexicans  and  Texan s  suffered 
severely  from  the  raids  of  these  two  peoples.  There  were  no  wild  men  on 
this  continent  who  roamed  over  so  vast  a  territory  as  the  Kiowas. 

In  personal  appearance  these  people  were  short  and  strongly  formed,  hav- 
ing much  more  muscular  development  than  any  of  their  surrounding  neigh- 
bors. Being  also  very  dark  in  color,  it  was  therefore  easy  to  distinguish 
them  at  sight. 

Some  of  their  winter  lodges  were  large  and  well  made.  In  summer  they 
lived  in  small  lodges  that  could  be  easily  moved. 

They  made  a  sort  of  visor  of  flint  hide  as  a  protection  for  the  eyes  against 
the  sun  during  summer.  This  was  generally  worn  by  the  men.  The 
women  wore  but  little  clothing,  a  skin  shirt,  leggings  and  moccasins,  with  a 
blanket  or  buffalo  robe  in  winter  constituted  their  dress.  None  of  them 
were  skilled  in  handiwork  for  ornamenting  their  clothing.  Some  of  them 
painted  their  faces,  but  this  was  not  common  among  them. 


240  TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 


CHAPTER   XXIX. 

THE  BRAVE  AND  WARLIKE  CHEYENNES— THE  FINEST  BODY  OF  SAVAGES  IN 
THE  WORLD— THEIR  SINGULAR  FRIENDSHIP  FOR  THE  ARAPAHOES— 
BLOODY  AND  COSTLY  WARS  WITH  THE  WHITES. 

A  Brave  and  Intelligent  People— Manner  of  Caring  for  their  Hair— A  Nation  of  Warriors 
— Expartness  of  Cheyenne  Women  in  Handiwork — Religious  Belief  of  the  Cheyennes 
— Their  Dances  and  Ceremonies — Their  Language — Their  Alliance  with  the  Sioux 
and  Arapahoes — Their  Attacks  on  Emigrant  Trains— Treaties  with  the  Government 
— Broken  Faith  followed  by  Fierce  and  Bloody  Battles — The  Chivington  Massacre — 
A  Bloody  and  Costly  War — Nearly  Forty  Million  Dollars  Spent  in  Fighting  the 
Cheyennes — Their  Home  Life— Peculiar  Marriage  Customs — Treatment  of  their 
Wives  and  Children — Their  Singular  Friendship  with  the  Arapahoes — A  Friendship 
that  has  never  been  Explained — Burial  of  the  Dead — Their  Lodges — Primitive 
Weapons— Symbols  used  by  Them — The  Northern  Cheyennes. 

THE  Cheyennes  were  of  Algonquin  stock,  and  were  the  most  intelligent 
tribe  of  this  nation.  I  consider  them  the  finest  specimen  of  wild  man  in  the 
world.  They  had  none  of  the  low  skulking  ways  so  common  to  the  ordinary 
savage,  but  seemed  above  this  type  in  almost  every  respect.  Their  language 
was  that  of  their  original  family.  Both  sexes  were  comely,  healthy  and 
seemed  contented.  In  one  trait  they  showed  a  marked  difference  to  most 
other  savages;  this  was  in  punishing  each  other  by  flagellation,  Should  one 
of  their  number  commit  an  offence  against  the  customs  of  the  tribe  he  was 
soundly  beaten,  the  culprit  rarely  taking  revenge  by  killing  or  injuring  any 
one  who  joined  in  the  chastisement.  Wives  and  children  were  often  beaten 
severely  by  the  husband  or  father.  The  Cheyennes  were  the  only  Indians 
who  used  this  mode  of  punishment. 

They  were  divided  into  two  parts,  the  Northern  and  Southern  Cheyennes, 
the  latter  being  the  more  numerous  of  the  two.  Their  principal  hunting 
ground  was  south  of  the  Republican  River  in  Kansas,  and  south  of  an  imag- 
inary line  running  east  and  west  from  the  mouth  of  that  river  to  the  Rocky 
Mountains.  This  territory  embraced  a  portion  of  what  is  now  western 
Missouri,  southern  Nebraska,  Kansas,  and  eastern  Colorado.  Having  been 
friendly  with  the  Arapahoes  for  upwards  of  a  century,  the  Cheyennes 
roamed  over  the  entire  country  south  of  the  line  mentioned  and  east  of  the 
Rockv  Mountains  to  what  is  now  the  dividing  line  between  the  Indian  Ter- 


FEATHER   WOLF — TYPICAL   CHEYENNE   WARRIOR. 
Twenty  Years  Among  Our  Hostile  Indians.  V&ge  241. 


242 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 


ritory,  Colorado  and  Kansas.  A  portion  of  this  territory  belonged  to  the 
Arapahoes,  but  by  common  consent  each  roamed  over  the  country  of  the 
other. 

Physically  the  Cheyennes  were  among  the  best  developed  of  all  North 
American  Indians,  and  were  also  the  most  cleanly  of  any  that  lived  by  the 

chase.  The  men  were  the  best 
and  bravest  warriors  of  any 
Indian  nation  on  this  continent. 
Man  for  man  they  could  defeat 
any  other  Indian,  and  no  body 
of  Indians  with  whom  they 
came  in  contact  were  ever 
ready  to  give  them  battle  on 
equal  footing.  They  were  the 
best  riders  and  marksmen,  and 
had  the  best  horses,  mules,  and 
dogs  that  could  be  found 
among  any  Indians  in  that 
wild  country. 

The  Cheyennes  were  driven 
out  of  the  Eastern  States  by 
the  advance  of  civilization,  and 
forced  their  way  west  through 
hostile  tribes  across  the 
Missouri  River  to  the  Black 
Hills  country  of  South  Dakota, 
and  afterward  settled  near  the 
Cheyenne  River,  from  whence 
a  large  portion  of  them  were 
subsequently  driven  by  the 
Sioux.  This  body  retreated  to 
the  south,  and  have  long 
been  known  as  Southern  Chey- 
ennes. Those  that  remained 

were  known  as  Northern  Cheyennes,  and  allied  themselves  with  the  Blackfeet 
and  others,  retaining  possession  of  their  original  home. 

The  Southern  Cheyennes  raided  their  neighbors  to  the  south  and  west,  fre- 
quently going  as  far  south  as  the  Arkansas  River.  The  eastern  portion  of 
their  territory  was  near  the  borders  of  civilization,  and  the  settlers  living 
there  suffered  greatly  by  their  depredations.  They  made  good  use  of  their 


CRAZY   HEAD  AND   SPOTTED  WOLF — CHEYENNES. 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR  HOSTILE   INDIANS.  248 

observations  among  the  whites,  and  were  far  in  advance  of  their  red  brothers 
who  were  more  remote  from  civilization. 

The  territory  they  occupied  was  well  watered,  wooded,  and  covered  with 
nutritious  grass.  It  was  the  natural  home  of  the  buffalo,  deer,  antelope, 
and  other  game,  which  furnished  them  at  all  times  ample  food,  as  well  as  an 
abundance  of  skins  for  clothing,  lodges  and  other  requirements.  Beaver 
and  otter  also  abounded  in  the  streams,  and  their  pelts  were  traded  for  arti- 
cles of  civilization. 

They  took  particular  care  of  their  hair,  greasing,  combing,  and  dressing  it 
every  day.  Both  men  and  women  parted  their  hair  in  the  middle;  the  part- 
ing line  on  the  scalp  was  painted  a  deep  carmine.  Their  brown  faces, 
smooth  skins,  coal-black  hair,  well-oiled  and  kept,  and  their  tall,  erect 
forms,  wrapped  in  robes,  made  them  look  much  more  imposing  than  any 
other  Indians  of  the  plains. 

Their  women  were  expert  in  fancy  work  requiring  the  use  of  awls,  sinews 
and  porcupine  quills.  Their  bead  and  paint  work  was  beautifully  done,  far 
better  than  that  of  any  other  Indian  nation.  I  have  often  seen  specimens  of 
their  beadwork  that  could  hardly  be  excelled  by  white  women. 

The  religion  of  the  Cheyennes  was  much  the  same  as  that  of  a  majority 
of  Indians.  They  believed  in  two  Spirits — the  Good  and  the  Bad.  They 
believed  that  there  was  a  happy  hunting  ground  to  which  all  spirits  went 
after  death.  They  did  not  attempt  to  explain  where  the  Spirit  Land  was 
nor  how  the  soul  of  the  departed  reached  it.  Their  Sun  Dance  in  honor  of 
the  Great  Spirit  resembled  the  Sun  Dance  of  the  Sioux.  They  had  other 
ceremonies,  but  the  Sun  Dance  was  the  most  important  rite  of  their  religious 
worship. 

They  allied  themselves  at  times  with  the  Sioux;  when  they  made  an  alli- 
ance of  this  kind,  the  party  committed  many  depredations,  killing  everybody 
they  met,  and  carrying  away  everything  they  could  lav  their  hands  on.  I 
have  known  of  war  parties,  made  up  of  Sioux,  Cheyennes  and  Arapahoes, 
to  go  far  north,  along  the  foothills  of  the  eastern  chain  of  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains, into  the  country  of  the  Crows,  for  the  purp  se  of  making  war  on  them. 

It  was  among  the  Southern  Cbeyenuesthat  Kit  Carson  became  prominent. 
He  had  his  headquarters,  most  of  the  time,  at  Bent's  Fort;  this  was  near  the 
southern  portion  of  their  territory.  Other  traders  also  had  trading  posts  in 
their  country.  The  Santa  Fe  trail  passed  through  a  portion  of  their  hunting 
ground,  and  created  a  bitter  feeling  on  the  part  of  the  Cheyennes  toward  the 
whites.  They  made  numerous  attacks  upon  travelers  over  this  road,  and  on 
the  outposts  of  civilization  within  their  reach.  Many  treaties  were  made 
between  them  and  government  agents.  But  as  soon  as  a  treaty  was  made  it 


STONE   CALF  AND  WIFE — CHEYENNES. 
Twenty  Years  Among  Our  Hostile  Indians 


Page  244. 


TWENTY    YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS.  245 

was  broken  by  one  side  or  the  other,  the  Government  regarding  its  obligations 
as  lightly  as  did  tbe  Indians.  The  Indian  soon  learned  to  look  upon  these 
treaties  as  little  better  than  a  means  of  securing  from  the  Government  the 
usual  stores  and  presents  which  accompanied  these  formal  talks;  and  the 
Government  itself,  therefore,  educated  the  Indians  in  the  arts  of  lying  and 
dishonesty.  Owing  to  the  constant  failure  of  one  or  both  parties  to  keep  the 
treaties,  hostilities  at  length  broke  out,  and  the  Cheyennes  were,  for  the  first 
time,  engaged  in  regular  warfare  with  the  Government  and  white  settlers. 
Shortly  afterward,  however,  negotiations  were  begun  on  the  part  of  the 
Government  to  restore  peace.  While  these  negotiations  were  pending, 
Colonel  Chiviugton,  of  the  First  Colorado  Cavalry,  attacked  the  Sand  Creek 
village  of  Cheyennes  and  killed  more  than  a  hundred  men,  women  and 
children.  At  the  time  of  its  occurrence  the  Indians  were  formally  at  peace 
with  the  United  States  and  under  the  protection  of  its  flag,  which  protection 
thej7  had  been  promised  and  induced  to  seek  by  the  Government.  On  the 
approach  of  Colonel  Chiviugton's  soldiers  the  great  chief,  White  Antelope, 
ran  forward  holding  up  his  hands,  pointing  to  the  United  States  flag,  indi- 
cating that  he  and  his  people  were  under  its  protection.  His  appeal  was  dis- 
regarded. Seeing  that  the  attack  was  deliberate,  he  made  no  resistance,  but 
folded  his  arms  and  remained  standing  quietly  until  shot  down.  The  United 
States  flag  floated  over  the  lodge  of  Black  Kettle,  the  head  chief,  as  an  ad- 
ditional precaution  against  attack,  he  having  been  advised  by  United  States 
officers  to  keep  the  national  colors  constantly  in  sight. 

As  may  be  naturally  supposed,  a  desperate  war  was  the  result.  The  In- 
dians believed  that  it  was  the  purpose  of  the  Government  to  exterminate 
them,  and  they  fought  with  the  ferocitj'  of  despair.  The  Cheyennes,  as 
already  mentioned,  were  among  the  bravest  Indian  warriors,  and  superior 
to  their  neighbors  in  intelligence  and  cunning,  and  tbe  war  that  followed 
was  bloody  while  it  lasted;  it  is  said  to  have  cost  the  Government  from  thirty 
to  forty  millions  of  dollars.  Even  after  the  conclusion  of  peace  there  was 
constant  trouble  with  the  Cheyennes.  Treaties  were  made  as  before,  but 
as  usual,  were  violated  or  ignored. 

Some  time  afterward,  General  Hancock  burned  a  Cheyenne  village  on 
Pawnee  Fork;  this  precipitated  another  outbreak,  in  which  General  Custer 
defeated  the  Indians,  killing  their  chief,  Black  Kettle  and  thirty-seven 
others,  two-thirds  of  them  being  women  and  children.  In  this  war  more 
than  three  hundred  soldiers  and  settlers  lost  their  lives.  Treaties  were  again 
made  with  the  Cheyennes,  who  from  that  time  forth  manifested  a  desire  to 
live  at  peace  with  the  whites.  They  subsequently  divided  into  three  bodies, 
in  each  case  mixing  up  with  the  Arapahoes — one  body  settling  on  Milk 


STARVING  ELK— TYPICAL   CHEYENNE  WARRIOR. 
Twenty  Years  Among  Our  Hostile  Indians. 


Page  216. 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG  OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS.  247 

River,  Montana,  another  on  the  North  Fork  of  the  Canadian  River,  and  one 
remaining  in  their  old  territory. 

The  Cheyennes  were  polygamous,  each  male  having  as  many  wives  as  he 
was  able  to  buy.  A  man  sometimes  secured  all  the  daughters  of  one  family 
for  his  wives.  Having  bought  the  eldest  daughter  of  a  family,  he  in  turn 
became  the  possessor  of  each  of  the  others,  as  they  became  old  enough  to 
marry.  Instances  were  also  common  where  a  mother  and  her  daughters 
became  the  wives  of  the  same  man. 

For  nearly  one  hundred  years  the  Cheyennes  and  Arapahoes  were  the 
warmest  friends  and  most  devoted  allies,  living  together  in  the  same  vil- 
lages, going  together  on  hunts,  and  fighting  in  the  same  battles  against  com- 
mon foes.  The  singular  friendship  existing  between  the  two  peoples  was 
very  striking,  for  the  Cheyennes  were  a  cleanly  and  intelligent  people,  their 
lodges  were  large,  and,  for  Indians,  they  were  rich  in  this  world's  goods. 
The  Arapahoes,  on  the  other  hand,  were  ignorant,  filthy  and  miserably 
poor.  Their  lodges  were  small,  dirty,  and  swarmed  with  vermin.  Their 
clothing  was  scanty  and  of  the  poorest  kind.  They  took  no  care  of  their 
persons  whatever.  Their  hair  was  never  combed,  and  hung  in  matted 
locks,  and  they  were  in  every  respect  repulsive  beyond  description.  Yet, 
with  characteristics  so  directly  opposite,  these  two  peoples  lived  together  in 
the  closest  friendship  for  nearly  a  century,  during  which  time  each  preserved 
its  individuality.  No  instance  was  ever  known  where  they  intermarried,  or 
where  a  member  of  either  tribe  learned  the  language  of  the  other.  Their 
children  grew  up  together  from  infancy  to  old  age,  jTet  could  not  converse 
with  each  other,  except  through  the  medium  of  the  sign  language.  This  is 
the  only  instance  of  a  lasting  friendship  between  savage  Indian  nations  that 
was  known  of  on  this  continent. 

The  Cheyennes  placed  the  bodies  of  their  dead  in  trees.  All  through  the 
country  they  roamed  over  where  there  was  timber  could  be  seen  tree  graves. 
These  were  well  built,  and  often  several  bodies  were  placed  on  the  wide 
platforms;  females  and  children  were  given  the  same  burial  the  warriors 
received.  They  did  not  place  the  articles  owned  b)T  the  person  during  life 
on  the  graves,  nor  were  they  superstitious  about  the  dead. 

The  Cheyennes  were  very  proud  and  dignified.  They  dressed  well,  and 
all 'their  personal  belongings  were  well  cared  for.  Their  lodges  were  the 
best  of  any  Indians  using  this  kind  of  habitation.  The  interior  was  nicely 
arranged,  and  the  beds  were  the  most  comfortable  of  any  used  by  the  wild 
Indians.  They  were  made  of  robes  and  blankets,  and  cleaned  daily.  They 
were  arranged  around  the  lodge  in  a  circle  next  to  the  lodge  poles;  each  per- 
son had  his  or  her  own  sleeping  place. 


CHEYENNE   WARR1OK  IN   FULL  WAR   COSTUME. 
Twenty  Years  Among  Our  Hostile  Indiana.  Pape  348. 


TWENTY    YEARS   AMONG   OUR    HOSTILE    INDIANS. 


249 


They  had  an  abundance  of  good  horses;  these  were  treated  kindly.  Their 
horse  equipments  were  also  well  made ;  they  used  hridle  bits  after  the  fashion 
of  the  white  man. 
Their  primitive  weapODS 
were  the  best  made  by 
any  Indians.  Some  of 
their  bows  were  from  five 
to  six  feet  in  length,  and 
backed  with  sinews  glued 
to  them  the  entire  length. 
With  a  bow  of  this  kind 
a  man  could  drive  an 
arrow  two-thirds  of  its 
length  into  the  body  of  a 
buffalo. 

Their  arrowheads  were 
made  of  iron  ;  these  were 
largely  secured  from 
white  traders.  They 
also  had  a  few  tools 
made  by  the  white 
man;  with  these  they 
made  many  articles 
for  themselves,  such  as 
bows,  arrows,  saddles, 
bridles,  pipe  stems, 
lances,  and  lodge  poles. 
The  females  used 
needles,  awls,  scissors, 
and  bodkins  in  making 
clothing  and  various 
family  articles. 

The  Cheyenne  symbols 
were  medicine  arrows, 
and  staffs.  They  did 
not  worship  these,  but 
carried  them  as  charms 
which  brought  good 
luck.  Their  "Dog 
Soldiers"  also  carried  any  war  implement  they  fancied  for  the  same  purpose. 


MEDICINE   STAFF   AND   MEDICINE  ARROWS — CHEYENNE. 


250  -TWENTY   YEARS  AMONG  OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 

THE  NORTHERN   CHEYENNES. 

When  the  Cheyennes  were  separated  the  Northern  Cheyennes  remained  in 
their  original  territory  for  some  time.  Not  being  numerically  strong,  they 
were  constantly  attacked  by  the  Sioux;  realizing  that  further  efforts  to  retain 
their  hunting  grounds  were  useless,  they  moved  north  to  the  country  of  the 
Blackfeet,  who  belong  to  the  same  family;  an  alliance  between  the  two 
people  was  made,  since  which  time  they  have  lived  together. 


TYPICAL    PLAINS   INDIAN. 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE    INDIANS. 


251 


CHAPTER  XXX. 

THE  DIRTY  AND  POVERTY-STRICKEN  ARAPAHOES— A  SHIFTLESS  AND  LAZY 
PEOPLE— HOW  THEY  LIVED— BEGGARS,  MENIALS,  AND  THIEVES. 

Where  did  the  Arapahoes  come  from  ? — Obscurity  of  their  Origin — A  Lazy  People — Their 
Habits,  Characteristics,  Customs,  and  Language — A  Mlthy  Lot — Their  Strange 
Friendship  for  the  Cheyennes — Brutal  Treatment  of  their  Wives — Menials  and 
Thieves  for  the  Cheyennes — The  Vilest  of  Beggars — Begging  and  Stealing  for  a  Liv- 
ing— Unable  to  Speak  their  own  Language — A  Language  rarely  Acquired  by  a 
White  Man — Their  Poor  Weapons  for  War  and  the  Chase — Too  Lazy  to  Fish — How 
they  Made  their  Clothing — Swarming  with  Vermin — Disgusting  Habits — A  Wretched 
Existence. 

FROM  whence  the  Arapahoes  came  or  what  their  origin  was, 
I  will  not  hazard  an  opinion.  They  were  unlike  all  other 
Indians  east  of  the  Rocljy  Mountains,  and  must  be  regarded  as 
a  distinct  nation  or  tribe.  Their  habits,  characteristics,  cus- 
toms, and  language  were  distinctly  Arapahoeand  nothing  else; 
in  these  respects  they  bore  no  resemblance  to  any  other  red 
men  of  the  West.  If  their  looks  or  actions  suggested  any 
nation  of  Indians  it  was  the  Shoshonees.  In  stature,  color, 
and  shape  of  their  heads,  they  bore  more  resemblance  to 
the  Comancbes  or  the  Snakes  than  to  any  other  Indians. 

They  were  the  most  filthy,  poverty-stricken,  and  shiftless 
Indians  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains.  They  took  no  more 
care  of  their  persons,  surroundings,  or  belongings  than  they 
were  actually  compelled  to  by  necessity.  They  had  scarcely 
enough  energy  to  secure  their  food,  and  would  live  on  any- 
thing rather  than  exert  themselves  to  procure  a  decent  living. 
Although  game  was  abundant  at  the  time  I  knew  them,  they 
were  too  lazy  to  secure  more  than  enough  to  last  from  day  to 
day,  and  were  content  to  live  in  small,  dirty  lodges.  Wild 
horses  were  plentiful  in  their  territory;  these  they  could  have 
easily  captured ;  yet  they  had  only  a  few,  even  these  were  mis- 
erable and  dejected  specimens.  The  burdens  put  upon  the  poor 
MADE  FROM  animals  when  moving  the  camp  would  make  a  heavy  load  for 
A  BOOT.  a  strong,  sound  horse,  but  their  brutal  women  masters  forced 
them  along  with  extreme  cruelty, by  beating  them  unmercifully. 
It  was  a  rare  thing  for  a  party  of  Arapahoes  to  go  on  the  warpath  by 


252  TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG  OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 

themselves,  for  the  reason  that  they  had  not  enough  horses  and  mules  to 
enable  them  to  make  a  strong  expedition.  When  they  accompanied  their 
old-time  friends,  the  Cheyennes,  on  the  warpath,  they  were  compelled  to  do 
the  camp  drudgery  and  the  stealing  for  the  whole  camp;  when  in  battle 
they  were  forced  from  necessity  and  the  instinct  of  self-preservation  to  arouse 
themselves  and  fight  for  existence. 

Of  all  Indian  peoples  they  were  among  the  meanest  to  their  wives.  Their 
women  were  degraded  and  extremely  repulsive,  and  were  forced  to  do  all  the 
hard  drudgery  and  dirty  work  of  the  camp  while  the  men  sat  in  the  lodges 
or  in  a  comfortable  place,  loafing  and  taking  their  ease.  The  men  believed 
that  the  women  were  put  on  earth  to  be  slaves,  and  compelled  them  to  act 
as  such.  They  bad  little  idea  of  morality,  and  a  husband  was  at  all  times 
ready  to  barter  the  honor  of  his  wives  or  daughters  to  a  stronger. 

The  one  remarkable  trait  among  them,  which  has  often  been  commented 
upon,  was  their  singular  affection  and  great  friendship  for  the  Cheyennes. 
This  I  can  account  for  only  from  the  fact  that  the  Cheyennes  were  infinitely 
superior  to  them  in  intelligence,  enterprise  and  appearance,  and  the  Arapa- 
hoes  looked  upon  them  with  admiration,  and  were  willing  to  act  as  menials 
to  thorn. 

The  Arapahoes  did  not  claim  any  particular  hunting  ground  of  their  own, 
but  roamed  over  the  country  to  the  south  of  the  Sioux,  all  along  the  base  of 
the  Rocky  Mountains,  under  Pike's  and  Long's  Peak,  as  far  south  as  the 
Spanish  Peaks,  and  as  far  east  as  the  country  occupied  by  their  friends,  the 
Cheyennes.  After  the  Overland  road  was  established,  many  of  them  went 
down  the  South  Platte  along  this  road  to  beg  and  steal  for  a  living.  The 
women  were  the  vilest  beggars  in  that  country. 

Their  language  was  so  poor  in  words  that  the  Arapahoes  themselves  could 
scarcely  converse  with  one  another  upon  the  most  ordinary  topics  without 
the  use  of  the  sign  language.  Their  oral  language  consisted  of  harsh  gut- 
tural sounds,  unpleasant  to  the  ear.  As  they  seldom  smiled  their  faces 
looked  rigid  and  drawn  when  speaking,  as  though  it  required  an  effort  to 
talk. 

The  worldly  possessions  of  the  Arapahoes  were  of  such  small  value  that 
when  the  Utes,  who  held  them  in  great  contempt,  crossed  the  mountains  in 
war  parties  they  seldom  attacked  them,  and  the  Sioux,  when  passing  south 
through  their  country  to  that  of  the  Kiowas,  rarely  disturbed  or  molested 
them,  because  they  did  not  consider  the  Arapahoes  worthy  of  notice.  Their 
bodies,  clothes,  and  lodge  belongings  swarmed  with  unmentionable  pests. 

They  had  only  the  poorest  of  weapons  for  war  and  the  chase.  A  miserable 
bow,  a  few  arrows,  an  old-fashioned,  discarded  firearm,  and  a  heavy  lance 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 


253 


usually  made  up  their  entire  equipment.  Had  they  possessed  energy  enough 
to  secure  good  arms  for  themselves  they  could  have  lived  as  well  as  any 
other  Indians  on  the  plains  and  mountains,  for  the  country  which  they 
occupied  was  filled  with  choice  game  of  every  kind.  Fish  were  abundant 
in  the  streams,  yet  the  Arapahoes  were  so  indolent  that  they  would  almost 
starve  rather  than  exert  themselves  to  catch  them. 

They  had  but  little  intercourse  with  the  whites  after  the  latter  entered  that 
country.  What  they  did  have  was  with  dissolute  persons,  and  proved  of 
lasting  injury  to  the  Indians.  The  better  class  of  whites  avoided  them,  and 
the  abject  poverty  of  the  Indians  did  not  permit  them  to  have  much  com- 
munication with  the  traders. 
They  continued  to  degenerate 
in  every  way,  and  decreased  in 
numbers,  from  the  time  they 
were  first  visited  by  white  men. 

The  famous  Indian  pipe, 
from  the  red  pipestone  quarry, 
was  owned  by  only  a  few,  al- 
though all  the  men  smoked 
when  they  could  procure  the 
necessary  material  without 
much  effort. 

Still  they  were  satisfied  with 
the  few  things  necessary  to 
their  wretched  existence.  They 
did  not  trouble  themselves 
about  their  origin,  nor  with  re- 
ligious beliefs,  or  what  became 
of  the  spirit  after  death.  They 
had  no  medicine  men,  in  the 
Indian  sense.  In  treating  the  sick,  the  old  women  performed  a  few  mys- 
terious rites  in  addition  to  administering  to  the  patients  teas  made  from  roots 
and  herbs.  This  was  the  extent  of  their  efforts  to  relieve  or  cure  the  afflicted. 

The  Arapahoes  generally  were  physically  weak,  a  strictly  healthy  or  sound 
one  being  the  exception  and  not  the  rule.  The  fact  most  to  be  regretted  in  con- 
nection with  this  statement  is,  that  their  physical  condition,  which,  primarily, 
was  the  result  of  their  filthy  habits  and  immoral  lives,  was  greatly  intensified 
by  their  intercourse  with  dissolute  white  people  with  whom  they  came  in  con- 
tact at  an  early  period.  Previous  to  this  time  they  were  more  or  less  troubled 
with  scrofula,  and  worse  diseases  soon  followed  the  advent  of  the  whites. 


AEAPAHOE  LODGE — DRYING  MEAT. 


254  TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 

At  a  subsequent  period  their  condition  was  somewhat  improved  under  the 
influence  of  civilization,  but  children  who,  after  a  critical  examination,  had 
been  pronounced  sound  by  medical  examiners,  developed  disease  as  soon  as 
they  were  subjected  to  a  change  of  diet  and  habits,  many  of  them  dying  at 
the  reservation  schools.  In  some  cases  children  who  were  returned  in  time 
to  their  homes  or  camps  regained  their  former  health.  This  was  due  to  free- 
dom from  all  restraint,  and  a  return  to  their  original  outdoor  life.  Indian 
nature  was  so  incapable  of  restraint,  even  among  a  people  as  indolent  as  the 
Arapahoes,  that  any  attempt  to  confine  them  in  the  least  caused  sufficient 
mental  anxiety  to  develop  an  insidious  disease  lurking  in  the  system.  A 
malady  once  started  usually  proved  serious,  and  as  no  effort  was  made  to 
check  it,  they  were  soon  in  a  pitiable  condition. 

The  Arapahoes  were  not  divided  into  small  tribes,  but  all  lived  together 
in  one  group,  having  but  one  chief,  and  two  or  three  sub-chiefs.  The  whites 
captured  an  Arapahoe  boy  when  very  young,  taking  him  to  St.  Louis,  where 
he  was  educated.  After  he  had  grown  to  man's  estate  he  returned  to  his 
people,  again  adopting  their  customs.  He  spoke  English,  but  preferred  the 
life  of  the  Indians.  As  he  was  captured  on  a  Friday,  the  whites  gave  him 
that  name.  Almost  everybody  in  that  country  at  the  time  knew  Friday. 

He  had  great  influence  among  the  Arapahoes,  as  well  as  the  Cheyennes, 
the  Ogalala,  and  Brule  Sioux,  and  did  much  to  keep  these  people  quiet.  He 
prevented  many  wagon  trains  from  being  attacked  and  destroyed  by  the 
Indians  mentioned. 

The  clothing  of  the  Arapahoes  was  made  from  the  skins  of  wolves,  dogs, 
rabbits  and  such  animals  as  they  happened  to  kill  on  the  chase.  With  the 
hair  hanging  in  mats  over  the  face,  and  dressed  in  dirty  clothing  of  this 
kind,  they  presented  a  disgusting  appearance. 

Among  them  there  was  no  buying  of  wives;  a  woman  consented  to  live 
with  a  man ;  that  constituted  the  marriage  ceremony.  Should  she  leave  and 
go  to  another,  it  ended  the  former  and  began  the  new  nuptial  agreement. 

They  were  too  lazy  to  quarrel  among  themselves  over  anything,  much  less 
about  a  woman. 

It  was  rare  for  one  Arapahoe  to  injure  or  kill  another;  if  it  occurred 
nothing  was  done  about  the  matter,  for  they  had  no  method  of  redressing 
wrongs. 

Sometimes  the  dead  bodies  of  prominent  chiefs  were  placed  in  trees.  The 
common  way  of  disposing  of  the  corpses  was  to  place  them  in  holes  or  caves, 
then  cover  them  with  stones. 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 


CHAPTER   XXXI. 

CLIFF  DWELLERS— THE  NAVAJOES  AND  THEIR  COUNTRY— THE  TONKAWAYS 
—THEIR  WARS  AND  WANDERINGS— CANNIBALISM  AMONG  THE  INDIANS. 

How  the  Navajoes  Resembled  White  Men  in  their  Habits — A  Tribe  of  Cliff  Dwellers — 
Their  Famous  Blankets — Their  Handiwork  and  Skill — Horsehair  Lariats — Beautiful 
Earthen  Ware — How  they  Purified  and  Cooled  Water — How  the  Cactus  was  used 
for  Clearing  Water — Peculiarity  of  the  Cactus  Leaf — Personal  Appearance  of  the 
Navajoes — Children  Adepts  in  throwing  the  Lasso — An  Expert  Indian  Lad  of  Ten 
— His  Feats  with  the  Lasso — Catching  a  Dog  by  either  Leg— The  Navajoe  in  his 
Family — A  Model  Indian — Deserted  Dwellings — The  Tonkaways — A  Remnant  of  a 
once  Powerful  People — Their  Vague  Traditions — Their  Wars  and  Wanderings — A 
Cannibal  Race — Killing  and  Eating  their  Prisoners. 

THE  Navajoes  were  a  portion  of 
the  Athabaskan  nation,  and  in 
their  wild  state  resembled  the 
white  man  in  his  habits  more  than 
any  other  Indians  of  the  far  West. 
They  were  cliff  dwellers.  In  the 
arid  country  occupied  by  them, 
with  its  high  temperature,  they 
lived  far  up  the  mountain  sides, 
pasturing  their  animals  in  the  val- 
leys and  to  the  summits  of  the 
mountains.  Their  horses,  mules 
and  burros  (a  small  species  of  the 
donkey)  thrived  on  the  nutritious 
grass  in  the  valleys,  and  their 
cattle  were  generally  in  good  con- 
dition for  slaughter. 

From    the   wool   of    sheep  and 
hair  of  goats  they  made  blankets, 
wraps,  and  other  articles  of  wear- 
ing apparel  which  were  very  serv- 
iceable, and   some  of  them  were 
very  handsome.    The  fabrics  were 
woven  by  the  women  by  hand ;  a 
long  time  was  often  required   to 
complete  them,   especially   if   the 
article  was  a  blanket,  and  intended  to  be  ornamental  as  well  as  useful.     It 


• 

E 


TYPICAL   NAVAJOE. 


256 


TWENTY   YEARS  AMONG  OUR  HOSTILE  INDIANS. 


often  took  them  more  than  a  year  to  complete  one  of  these  blankets.  They 
were  generally  woven  so  close,  and  the  material  twisted  so  hard  that  they 
were  impervious  to  water.  One  of  them  could  be  taken  by  its  four  corners 
and  tilled  with  water,  which  it  would  hold  without  leaking;  the  water 
seemed  to  swell  the  threads  and  make  the  fabric  closer  and  firmer. 

They  were  also  expert  in  making  lariat  ropes  from  the  hair  of  horse  tails, 
by  braiding  the  hair  over  a  round  stick.  Some  of  these  lariats  were  made 
smooth  and  in  various  colors.  Others  w.ere  made  very  rough  with  the  ends 

of  the  hair  sticking  out  all 
over  them.  These  rough 
lariats  were  used  for  general 
purposes,  as  well  as  a  protec- 
tion from  reptiles  while  the 
owner  was  asleep  on  the 
ground.  When  used  for  this 
purpose  the  lariat  was  care- 
fully laid  in  a  circle  around 
the  sleeping  place,  and  it  was 
claimed  by  teamsters,  herders 
and  others  living  in  that 
country  that  neither  rattle- 
snakes, scorpions,  centipedes, 
or  any  of  the  reptiles  which 
are  so  numerous  there  would 
cross  this  hairy  rope;  the  stiff 
and  prickly  hairs  of  the  rough 
lariats  protruded  in  every 
direction  and  in  many  in- 
stances may  have  served  as  a 
sufficient  barrier  against  un- 
welcome, crawling  intruders, 
as  it  is  a  fact  that  lariat  ropes  of  this  kind  were  carried  by  almost  every 
one  in  that  country,  and  were  always  used  in  the  manner  described  while 
sleeping  on  the  ground. 

The  Nava  joes  also  made  a  ware  from  clay  which  they  decorated  and  glazed 
after  the  style  of  the  Guadalajara  Indians  of  Mexico,  which  was  of  great 
service  to  every  one  living  in  the  Navajoe  country.  When  used  for  cooling 
and  purifying  drinking  water  the  ware  was  left  unglazed  and  was  porous. 
Such  a  vessel,  filled  with  water,  was  covered  with  two  or  three  thicknesses 
of  a  wet  blanket,  and  sn?npnded  in  the  open  air.  Filtration  went  on  rapidly; 


NAVAJOE  WOMAN  WEAVING. 


TWENTY    YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 


after  passing  through  this  vessel  the  water  was  distilled  into  another  vessel 
below.  This  simple  process  made  the  water  clear,  sweet,  cool,  and  thoroughly 
purified  it. 

All  through  Texas,  Arizona,  and  northern  Mexico  is  found  a  species  of 
cactus,  the  thick  leaves  of  which  when  sliced  in  two  and  thrown  into  a  ves- 
sel of  water  will  in  a  short  time  precipitate  the  sediment  to  the  bottom. 
Two  or  three  leaves  of   this 
plant,  after  having  been  cut 
in  two  and  thrown  into  a  pail 
of  dirty  water  drawn  from  the 
Pecos  River,  would  in  a  short 
time  precipitate  the  sand  and 
sediment  to  the  bottom,  leav- 
ing the  water  on  the  top  clear 
and  drinkable. 

The  ware  made  by  the 
Navajoes  was  also  used 
largely  throughout  that 
country  for  cooking  purposes, 
for  they  as  well  as  the  Mexi- 
cans ate  large  quantities  of 
frijoles  (a  black  bean),  and 
earthen  pots  were  of  much 
service  in  cooking  them. 

The  Navajoes  were  a  friend- 
ly race,  and  were  never 
known  to  make  war  on  the 
whites.  They  lived  on  the 
meat  and  vegetables  they 
raised,  including  frijoles,  or, 
as  the  Mexicans  called  them, 
"  nationalies. "  Game  was 
scarce  in  their  country,  and 
they  did  not  follow  the  chase.  NAVAJOE  IN  WAR  COSTUME. 

Nor  did  they  go  on  marauding 

expeditions,  although  parties  of  their  young  men  have  been  known  to  seek 
revenge  in  this  way  for  wrongs  committed  on  them  by  other  Indians. 

The  Navajoes  were  black  and  swarthy,  and  did  not  paint  or  tattoo 
their  faces,  as  they  are  sometimes  represented.  Their  clothing  re- 
sembled that  of  the  white  man,  or  Mexican  Greaser,  more  than  that  of 


258 


TWENTY   YEARS  AMONG  OUR  HOSTILE   INDIANS. 


XAVAJUE  WARRIUU 


the  Indian.  They  were  expert 
horsemen,  and  were  kind  to 
their  animals. 

As  soon  as  their  children 
could  walk,  boys  and  girls 
were  taught  the  use  of  the  lasso. 
They  began  practicing  with  a 
string,  or  a  small  rope  with  a 
noose  at  one  end,  catching  cats, 
dogs,  chickens,  or  each  other; 
every  living  thing  being  used 
as  a  subject.  I  have  seen  a 
Navajoe  boy,  ten  years  of  age, 
lasso  a  running  dog,  on  any 
foot  he  was  told  to  catch.  He 
could  take  a  rope  with  a  heavy 
substance  on  one  end,  but  with- 
out a  noose,  and  throw  it  in 
such  a  manner  that  it  would 
wind  two  or  three  times  around 
the  neck  of  an  animal  and 
fasten  itself  tight  enough  to 
allow  the  victim  to  be  seized 
by  the  hands  before  the  rope 
became  disentangled. 

The  Navajoes  were  a  healthy 
and  hardy  race,  some  of  them 
living  to  very  old  age.  Their 
home  life  was  congenial; 
cruelty  or  barsh  words  rarely 
disturbed  the  harmony  of  the 
family  circle,  as  they  were  by 
nature  more  gentle  than  most 
other  Indians.  The  men  were 
considerate  to  their  women,  did 
not  compel  them  to  do  all  the 
work  of  the  family,  but  shared 
the  labor  of  raising  the  crops 
with  them,  also  attending  to 
the  animals,  as  well  as  doing 
outdoor  work. 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG  OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 


259 


Though  living  near  white  men,  they  preserved  their  individuality  scrupu- 
lously. It  was  a  rare  thing  for  a  white  man  or  Mexican  to  marry  a  Navajoe 
woman,  or  for  a  Navajoe  to  go  outside  of  his  own 
people  for  a  wife.  Polygamy  may  have  been  per- 
missible, but  was  not  practiced. 

They  were  governed  by  a  chief  and  a  few  select 
men  of  the  villages,  who  made  a  few  crude  laws  or 
regulations  which  were  respected  by  all. 

They  had  their  own  religion,  which  was  a  kind 
of  idolatry,  as  they  worshiped  both  stone  and  wooden 
images. 

Both  men  and  women  smoked,  usually  a  cigarette 
made  after  the  style  of  the  Mexicans. 

They  cared  but  little  for  intoxicating  liquors, 
although  they  manufactured  a  very  strong  alcoholic 
beverage  from  the  maguay  plant  and  from  bear 
grass,  a  species  of  Spanish  bayonet.  It  had  a  burnt 
flavor,  and  produced  intoxication  quickly,  although 
the  effects  soon  passed  away. 

The  Navajoes  rapidly  decreased  in  numbers,  as 
the  numerous  unoccupied  dwellings  scattered 
throughout  their  country  testify.  They  made  no 
marked  progress  during  the  long  period  they  were 
known  to  white  men,  were  singularly  conservative 
in  their  mode  of  living,  and  did  not  differ  materially  from  their  ancestors 
of  generations  ago. 


CEBRA    NEGRA — NAVAJOE. 


THE   TONKAWAYS. 

In  northern  Texas,  between  Salt  and  Clear  Forks  of  the  Brazos  River, 
lived  the  remnant  of  the  Tonkaways,  a  once  powerful  people.  Of  their 
origin  nothing  is  known  beyond  vague  traditions  sometimes  recounted  by 
the  old  men.  According  to  them,  a  long  time  ago  the  Toukaways  lived 
near  the  shores  of  "the  great  ocean,"  supposed  to  be  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 
In  many  bloody  wars  with  their  neighbors  they  became  greatly  reduced 
in  numbers,  and  at  length  were  driven  north  to  the  vicinity  of  the  Arkansas 
River.  Here  again  they  wero  surrounded  by  hostile  neighbors,  and  were 
finally  driven  into  northwestern  Texas. 

When  living  in  their  original  home  on  the  shores  of  the  sea,  their  neigh- 


260  TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG  OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 

bors  claimed  that  they  were  cannibals;  that  their  chief  object  in  battle  was 
to  secure  prisoners  rather  than  to  kill  the  enemy;  and  that  these  prisoners 
were  subsequently  killed  and  eaten.  After  they  were  driven  to  the  Arkansas 
River  all  the  surrounding  tribes  made  war  upon  them  for  the  same  cause. 
The  Kiowas  and  Pawnees  claimed  that  the  Tonkaways  captured  children  for 
the  purpose  of  eating  them.  The  Pawnee  tribes  were  especially  embittered 
against  the  Tonkaways,  for  they  declared  that  they  had  at  one  time  killed 
and  devoured  a  favorite  child  of  a  chief  of  the  Pawnee  nation.  This  eventu- 
ally caused  an  alliance  of  the  Kiowas,  Pawnees,  and  other  tribes  against  the 
Tonkaways,  who  were  finally  driven  into  northwestern  Texas,  where  they 
made  their  last  stand.  Some  of  their  old  men  admitted  that,  long  before, 
when  living  near  the  coast,  the  Tonkaways  captured  the  crews  of  ships  that 
came  ashore,  killed  them,  and  ate  portions  of  their  bodies.  They  also  ad- 
mitted having  eaten  portions  of  the  bodies  of  their  enemies,  captured  in  battle, 
but  claimed  that  they  only  ate  the  heart,  and  for  the  purpose  of  acquiring 
the  courage  of  the  slain.  The  Tonkaways  were  the  only  Indians  against 
whom  the  charge  of  cannibalism  was  openly  made. 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS.  261 


CHAPTER  XXXII. 

THE  PUEBLOS  AND  ZUNIS— HIDEOUSLY  UGLY   GODS    AND   IDOLS— CUSTOMS 

OF  A  STRANGE  PEOPLE. 

Where  did  they  come  from? — Why  did  they  keep  to  themselves? — Supposed  to  be  Chris- 
tians, but  in  reality  Heathen — Their  Ugly  Idols — A  Mooted  Question — Why  they 
were  made  so  Ugly — Smashing  them  to  Pieces — Putting  an  Idol  to  a  Queer  Use — 
Using  a  God  for  a  Liquor  Flask — Homliness  an  Antidote  for  Pain — Where  have  the 
Pueblos  Gone? — An  Unsolved  Mystery — Wailed  Caves  and  Ruins  of  Stone  Dwellings 
— A  Lost  Art — How  did  they  make  Cement? — The  Zunis — How  they  Lived — 
Their  Numerous  Flocks  and  Herds — A  Strange  People — Praying  to  the  Spirits  of 
Ocean — The  Pimas  or  Papagoes — Buried  in  a  sitting  Posture — Feasting  at  the  Grave 
— Praying  for  a  New  Husband — Tar  as  a  Cosmetic. 

ETHNOLOGIC  A.LLY,  it  is  difficult  to  place  the  Pueblos.  They  seemed  to  be  a 
distinct  people.  In  some  of  their  characteristics  and  customs  they  somewhat 
resembled  the  Navajoes,  but  in  general,  all  their  peculiarities  were  distinctly 
their  own.  They  were  scattered  through  New  Mexico  and  Arizona,  where  they 
lived  in  villages,  and  followed  the  manners  and  customs  of  their  ancestors. 
They  received  their  name  from  their  custom  of  living  in  fixed  places,  the 
word  pueblo  being  Spanish  for  village  or  town.  They  raised  a  small 
quantity  of  vegetables  and  grain  for  their  own  use,  and  made  excellent  pot- 
tery, which  they  exchanged  for  the  necessaries  of  life ;  they  were  gentle  in 
their  nature,  treated  their  animals  with  kindness,  and  did  not  use  horses  or 
dogs  for  food.  They  were  courteous  to  strangers  who  entered  their  villages, 
and  did  not  make  trouble  unless  interfered  with. 

They  were  supposed  to  be  Christians,  but  in  reality  were  heathen,  if  the 
number  of  their  gods  and  goddesses  was  an  indication  of  idolatry.  It  was 
difficult  to  obtain  any  account  of  their  religion,  and  it  is  therefore  a  question 
whether  they  worshiped  idols  or  not.  They  made  and  kept  them  in  their 
dwellings,  and  did  not  appear  to  respect  or  fear  them;  they  would  sell  them 
for  a  few  cents,  or  barter  them  for  liquor  or  other  articles.  These  gods  were 
frequently  made  hollow,  and  the  Indians  sometimes  put  them  to  the  ignoble 
use  of  holding  liquor.  It  was  not  uncommon  to  see  a  Pueblo  enter  a  place 
where  liquor  was  sold  and  present  one  of  his  hollow  gods  to  be  filled.  At 
the  first  opportunity  he  substituted  himself  for  his  little  god  and  speed- 
ily became  the  liquor  holder.  The  gods  were  made  as  hideously  ugly  as 


262  TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 

possible,  in  order  to  ward  off  pain  or  disease;  if  they  failed  in  this  the  Indian 
did  not  hesitate  to  smash  them  to  pieces  if  he  could  not  sell  them. 

The  ruins  and  relics  scattered  throughout  this  region  indicate  a  population 
of  great  numbers  in  the  past.  Fragments  of  pottery  are  found  in  many 
localities  in  all  this  section,  which  embraces  upwards  of  ten  thousand  square 
miles.  Stone  foundations  and  walls  of  cities  show  that  at  some  remote 
period  thousands  of  people  dwelt  within  them. 

The  Pueblos  had  no  written  language,  nor  were  there  traditions  current 
among  them  as  to  the  cause  of  their  depleted  numbers,  or  if  there  were  they 
would  not  impart  them  to  others.  There  is  no  record  of  any  branch  of  the 
Pueblos  having  settled  elsewhere,  so  that  large  numbers  of  them  must  have 
perished  near  their  present  location. 

Pueblo  stone  foundations  are  usually  found  along  the  streams  tributary  to 
the  Rio  Gila,  but  occasionally  at  a  long  distance  from  the  water.  In  these 
cases,  however,  the  topography  of  the  country  shows  the  beds  of  streams 
which  have  long  since  run  dry,  or  have  changed  their  courses  at  some  re- 
mote period.  Walled  caves  are  also  found  in  large  numbers  in  this  region, 
the  history  of  which  the  present  inhabitants  have  no  knowledge  or  tradition. 
In  proximity  to  these  caves  appear  also  the  ruins  of  stone  dwellings  built 
without  cement,  and  numerous  traces  of  irrigating  canals  and  ditches,  which 
show  that  the  Pueblos  were  once  engaged  in  agriculture. 

Their  houses  were  usually  made  of  stone,  or  adobe  (a  brick  dried  in  the  sun 
and  not  baked).  The  bouses  were  generally  one  story  in  height,  the  entrance 
and  exit  was  through  a  hole  in  the  roof.  The  Pueblos  understood  the  art  of 
making  a  waterproof  cement  for  their  roofs  that  was  very  durable,  but  the 
process  has  long  been  a  lost  art.  Some  of  the  roofs  of  the  old  missions  in 
Texas  and  New  Mexico,  which  have  been  standing  for  centuries,  were  cov- 
ered with  this  cement,  and  are  in  as  good  a  state  of  preservation  to-day  as 
they  were  when  first  built.  The  floors  of  their  houses  were  made  of  the  same 
material.  The  fireplaces  and  chimneys  were  large  open  spaces,  and  were 
used  almost  wholly  for  cooking  places.  During  the  extreme  warm  weather 
the  houses  were  cool,  though  to  a  civilized  person  they  were  very  gloomy. 


ZUNIS. 

\ 

Of  the  Pueblo  tribes,  the  Zunis  were  in  many  respects  the  most  advanced 
in  the  arts  of  civilized  life.  Their  flocks  and  herds  consisted  of  horses, 
burros,  sheep,  goats  and  cattle.  They  also  raised  chickens  and  other  domes- 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG  OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 


263 


tic  fowl.    Their  country  was  well  adapted  for  raising  sheep  and  goats,  which 
were  pastured  largely  on  the  mountain  side,  where  they  remained  without 


MANNER  OF   WEARING   HAIR — ZUNIS   FEMALES. 

water  for  days  at  a  time.     Their  farms  were  cultivated  by  irrigation,  and 
the  crops  received  much  attention. 


264  .TWENTY   YEARS  AMONG   OUR  HOSTILE   INDIANS. 

Like  the  Aztecs,  they  had  numerous  festival  and  fete  days,  which,  clad  in 
rich  and  varied  costumes,  they  celebrated  with  processions  and  dances.  They 
were  reticent  in  speaking  of  their  religious  beliefs,  but  admitted  that  they 
worshiped  the  sun. 

The  government  of  the  Zunis  consisted  of  a  Governor,  an  Alcalde  or 
Mayor,  a  number  of  caiques  or  councilors,  eleven  of  whom  were  elected 
annually,  and  a  chief  councilor,  who  was  elected  to  serve  for  life.  They  had 
also  an  officer  known  as  the  War  Chief,  but  he  had  no  influence  in  their 
councils,  unless  the  tribe  was  threatened  with  danger. 

In  their  domestic  habits  the  Zunis  were  more  cleanly  than  any  other  tribe 
in  that  vicinity.  They  had  but  little  household  furniture,  nor  was  much 
required  for  their  simple  wants;  they  worked,  cooked,  and  slept  on  their 
well-kept  floors.  Their  women  were  usually  busy  weaving  clothing,  grind- 
ing grain,  baking  bread,  and  in  other  household  occupations. 

The  traditional  type  of  Indian  seemed  wanting  among  these  people.  All, 
including  the  women,  smoked.  They  usually  smoked  cigarettes  made  from 
tobacco  and  rolled  in  the  thin  husks  of  the  corn.  Their  pipes  were  crude, 
looking  as  though  they  were  made  of  the  coarsest  clay. 

Many  of  the  Indians  in  that  section  lived  clo?e  together,  had  common 
interests,  traditions,  customs,  dress,  yet  spoke  a  language  unintelligible  to 
any  of  the  others;  none  of  them  bearing  any  resemblance  to  the  Aztecs  of 
ancient  Mexico,  or  to  the  nomadic  tribes  throughout  that  region. 

The  Zunis  had  a  tradition  that  their  gods  brought  them  to  an  arid  and 
sterile  plain  for  a  home,  far  removed  from  the  ocean,  and  that  their  fore- 
fathers taught  them  the  prayers  whereby  water  could  be  obtained.  These 
prayers  were  addressed  to  the  spirits  dwelling  in  the  ocean,  the  home  of  all 
water,  and  the  source  from  which  the  blessing  must  come.  They  believed 
that  in  answer  to  these  prayers  rain  clouds  were  brought  from  the  ocean  by 
the  spirits  of  their  ancestors. 


PIMA,  OR  PAPAGOS. 

The  Pima  Indians,  or  Papagos,  as  they  were  sometimes  called,  confined 
themselves  to  a  restricted  territory  on  the  Gila  River  in  Arizona,  were 
peaceful  and  semi-civilized.  Their  civilization  was  their  own,  for  in  no  way 
had  it  been  acquired  from  the  white  man.  Originally  they  lived  in  the 
northwestern  part  of  Sonora,  Mexico,  and  had  in  a  certain  way  accepted  the 
Christian  faith  as  taught  by  the  Spaniards;  this,  however,  continued  to  be 
mixed  up  with  their  own  heathenish  belief. 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG  OUR  HOSTILE   INDIANS.  265 

Intolerant  of  Mexican  rule,  a  large  portion  of  them  migrated  north  to  the 
territory  called  Pimerica  Alta,  and  adopted  the  name  of  Pimas.  This  por- 
tion of  the  tribe  numbered  about  fifteen  thousand.  After  their  arrival  in 
Arizona  they  did  not  trouble  either  the  white  man  or  their  Indian  neigh- 
bors; but  lived  in  a  half-civilized  way,  apart  from  all.  other  tribes, 
though  they  held  friendly  intercourse  with  white  men,  as  well  as  with  the 
Opata  Indians.  They  were  a  stationary  race,  both  before  their  migration 
from  Sonora,  and  after  their  arrival  in  Arizona. 

Notwithstanding  their  peaceful  inclinations  and  semi-civilized  mode  of  life 
they  were,  when  occasion  required,  as  brave  warriors  as  any  on  the  conti- 
nent. This  they  proved  many  times  by  repelling  successfully  the  attacks  and 
incursions  of  the  Apaches.  They  lived  almost  exclusively  by  agriculture, 
and  in  this,  as  well  as  in  many  other  characteristics,  they  seemed  to  be 
related  to  the  Pueblos. 

The  Pima  Indian  was  a  stoic,  and  lived  and  died  a  fatalist.  When  the 
head  of  a  family  died  a  council  was  called,  and  all  of  the  property  of  the  de- 
ceased was  equitably  allotted  to  members  of  the  tribe.  When  a  chief  died 
the  body  was  borne  to  the  grave,  where  it  was  placed  in  a  sitting  posture, 
and  the  entire  tribe  participated  in  the  funeral  ceremonies.  On  such  an 
occasion  instead  of  signs  of  mourning,  there  was  rejoicing,  and  a  great  feast 
was  prepared.  A  sufficient  number  of  cattle  were  slaughtered  at  the  grave 
to  afford  every  one  a  full  meal,  and  A  goodly  portion  of  meat  was  carried 
home  to  each  family.  A  division  of  the  property  of  the  dead  chief  was  made 
and  distributed  equally  among  the  various  members  or  families  of  the  tribe. 

On  the  death  of  the  husband,  the  widow  invested  herself  with  the  usual 
signs  of  mourning  and  painted  her  face  with  tar.  This  she  continued  to  do 
for  a  stated  period,  in  the  meantime  praying  for  a  new  husband.  A  young 
and  good-looking  woman  sometimes  married  a  few  days  after  the  burial  of 
her  husband,  although  it  was  her  privilege  to  mourn  for  a  conventional 
period,  if  she  so  desired.  In  that  case  custom  required  that  the  husband  also 
should  besmear  his  face  with  tar,  until  his  wife  ceased  to  mourn  for  his  pred- 
ecessor. 

Among  the  Pima  Indians  there  were  no  marriage  ceremonies;  the  man 
and  woman  elected  to  live  together,  and  that  constituted  them  husband  and 
wife.  Divorce  was  as  simple  as  marriage.  Whenever  a  husband  or  wife 
felt  inclined  to  dissolve  the  matrimonial  contract  they  separated  and  that 
was  the  end  of  it.  It  was  not  necessary  for  the  abandoning  party  to  assign 
cause  for  separation,  and  no  stigma  or  disgrace  attached  to  either  on  ac- 
count of  the  dissolution  of  the  marriage  tie.  For  this  reason  divorces  among 
them  were  frequent. 


266 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 


The  Pimas  believed  in  a  Good  God  and  a  Bad  God,  attributing  to  the 
intervention  of  each  respectively  all  the  benefits  and  evils  they  experienced 
during  life.  Although  they  had  some  of  the  traditions  of  Christian  teach- 
ing inherited  from  the  time  of  their  subjection  to  the  Spaniards,  they  had  no 
particular  form  of  worship. 


GROUP  OF   INDIANS  WITH  BEAR  CLAW  NECKLACES. 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 


CHAPTER    XXXIII. 

THE  PAWNEES— A  NATION  WHOSE  ORIGIN  IS  UNKNOWN— FEUDS  AND 
FIERCE  BATTLES— SKINNING  A  MAN  ALIVE— TRIBES  CONSTITUTING 
THE  NATION. 

Once  a  Numerous  and  Warlike  People — Peculiar  Manner  of  Cutting  their  Hair — Their 
Hunting  Ground — Natural  Home  of  the  Buffalo — Jealousies  and  Feuds  Created  in 
Hunting  Them — Hated  by  all  their  Neighbors — Hatred  of  the  Sioux — Ambition  of 
the  Sioux  to  be  Known  as  a  Pawnee  Killer — Vicious  Tribes  traveling  a  long  way  to 
Fight  the  Pawnees — Vindictiveness — Skinning  a  Man  Alive — Pawnee  Religion — 
Priests  and  Doctors — Medicine  Bags — Widows  of  the  Pawnees — The  Wichitas. 

BEYOND  vague  traditions  little  or  nothing  is  known  of  the  origin  of  the 
Pawnees,  and  they  must  therefore  be  classed  as  a  distinct  nation.  They  had 
their  own  language,  and  called  themselves  Pani,  or  Panna;  their  character- 
istics and  customs  were  peculiar  to  themselves,  and  in  these  they  differed  from 
all  their  neighbors  in  many  interesting  ways.  When  left  undisturbed  they 
were  inclined  to  be  peaceful ;  but  when  aroused  they  were  very  fierce  and  war- 
like. At  one  time  they  numbered  not  less  than  thirty  thousand,  but  con- 
stant and  bloody  battles  with  all  their  neighbors,  as  well  as  fierce  tribes  from 
afar,  reduced  them  greatly. 

Their  hunting  ground  embraced  what  is  now  Nebraska,  Kansas  and 
northern  Missouri.  Their  entire  country  was  covered  with  nutritious 
grasses;  a  large  portion  of  their  territory  was  covered  with  a  thick  carpet  of 
buffalo  grass.  This  was  the  natural  home  of  the  buffalo. 

Millions  of  these  huge  beasts  roamed  all  over  the  country  claimed  by 
them.  These  animals  drew  hunting  and  war  parties  from  all  Indian  nations 
and  tribes  north,  south  and  west  of  them.  This  resulted  in  jealousies  and 
feuds,  which  brought  the  Pawnees  in  deadly  conflict  almost  constantly. 

One  day  it  was  with  a  party  of  Sioux,  the  next  with  a  band  of  Cheyennes 
and  Kiowas,  the  next  a  war  party  of  Osages  and  so  on. 

The  Sioux  in  particular  bitterly  hated  the  Pawnees,  and  the  battles  be- 
tween them  were  very  bloody. 

So  strong  was  the  hatred  of  the  Sioux  that  they  would  go  to  almost  any 
extreme  to  kill  a  Pawnee,  and  the  highest  ambition  of  a  Sioux  warrior  was 
to  call  himself  "Pawnee  killer."  I  knew  several  Sioux  warriors  who 
claimed  this  title;  upon  making  inquiry  as  to  why  so  many  had  this  same 


268  TWENTY   YEARS  AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 

name,  each  gave  a  most  vivid  description  of  a  bloody  and  desperate  hand-to- 
hand  conflict  with  a  Pawnee. 

Nearly  all  Indians  who  went  to  war  with  the  Pawnees  would  give  graphic 
descriptions  of  battles  in  which  they  had  been  engaged  with  them,  and 
nothing  seemed  to  delight  them  more  than  to  recount  how  they  had  fought 
so  valiant  a  foe,  each  narrator  claiming  to  be  the  victor. 

Two  fierce  tribes  of  the  Sioux— the  Miuneconjoux  and  Uncpapa— who  had 
their  hunting  ground  in  the  foothills  of,  and  in  the  Rocky  Mountains  often 
traveled  the  long  distance  from  their  country  to  that  of  the  Pawnees,  for 


PAWNEE   VILLAGE. 


the  express  purpose  of  engaging  in  battle  with  them,  that  they  might  return 
to  their  own  people  and  recount  their  battles  in  glowing  colors. 

The  Pawnees  were  originally  composed  of  three  tribes,  the  principal  being 
the  Pawnees  proper. 

The  French  trappers  and  traders  called  them  the  Loup  or  Wolf,  after  their 
principal  symbol.  Another  tribe  was  the  Arickarees,  afterwards  nicknamed 
the  Rees.  These  people  separated  from  the  Pawnees  in  the  early  part  of  the 
century.  Originally  their  hunting  ground  was  the  same  as  the  others,  but 
after  their  separation  they  moved  to  the  country  of  the  Mandans,  with  whom 
they  became  fast  friends,  and  have  remained  in  that  vicinity  ever  since.  The 
third  tribe  of  the  Pawnees  was  the  Wichitas,  sometimes  called  the  Pictured 
Pawnees,  or  Pawnee  Picts. 


PAWNEE  WARRIORS — MANNER   OF  WEARING   THE   HAIR. 
Twenty  Years  Among  Our  Hostile  Indians. 


270 


TWENTY   YEARS  AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 


This  name  was  applied  to  them  from  their  custom  of  tattooing  themselves 
in  various  colors,  blue  and  red  being  the  most  prominent.  Some  of  their 
facial  and  body  ornamentation  in  this  manner  was,  for  Indians,  well  done. 

All  the  tribes  of  the  Pawnees  had  a  peculiar  manner  of  cutting  the  hair, 
cutting  it  as  close  as  possible  all  over  the  skull,  except  a  roach  about  two  or 
three  inches  wide,  from  about  the  center  of  the  head  back  to  the  scalplock, 
leaving  a  stiff  tuft  standing  erect  in  the  center,  and  inclining  back  to  the 
height  of  the  scalplock.  With  hair  cut  in  this  fashion,  large  rings  in  the 
slits  in  their  ears,  faces  and  bodies  tattooed  or  painted  on  their  dark  skins, 
made  them  a  strange-appearing  people. 


PAWNEE  HABITATIONS — MUD  HOUSES. 

All  of  the  Pawnees  were  good  hunters;  as  many  kinds  of  game  were  plen- 
tiful in  their  country  they  had  an  abundance  of  meat,  especially  that  of  the 
buffalo.  They  also  had  plenty  of  horses;  these  were  kept  in  good  condition 
for  war  purposes. 

After  civilization  made  inroads  into  their  territory,  they  ceased  to  be 
nomadic,  and  lived  in  fixed  habitations.  Some  of  these  were  made  of  logs, 
others  were  a  sort  of  mud  house,  none  of  them  having  more  than  one  room; 
this  was  kitchen,  dining  room,  parlor,  sleeping  room  and  all.  After  they  be- 
came stationary  they  cultivated  the  soil  after  Indian  fashion,  raising  corn, 
pumpkins  and  the  coarser  vegetables. 

Although  the  Pawnees  early  came  in  contact  with  white  settlers  and 
adopted  some  of  their  ways,  they  could  not  divest  themselves  of  the  vindic- 
tiveness  and  ferocity  of  Indian  nature. 

For  example,  a  party  of  emigrants  passing  through  their  country,  bad  a 


PAWNEE   WARRIOR — FULL  WAR   COSTUME. 
Twenty  Years  Among  Our  Hostile  Indians. 


Page  271 


272 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 


braggart  among  their  number,  who  boasted  that  he  would  kill  the  first  In- 
dian he  saw.  In  his  endeavor  to  make  good  his  threat,  he  fired  upon  and 
killed  a  Pawnee.  The  Indians  assembled  in  large  numbers,  surrounded  the 
train,  and  demanded  that  the  offending  man  bo  delivered  to  them.  The 
trainmen  being  greatly  outnumbered,  and  knowing  that  a  refusal  meant 
death  to  all  of  them  delivered  the  man  to  the  Indians. 


GROUP  OF   PAWNEE  BRAVES. 

He  was  at  once  stripped  of  all  his  clothing  and  literally  skinned  alive. 
The  Pawnees  cut  his  skin  into  strips  from  a  half  to  three-quarters  of  an  inch 
in  width,  commencing  at  the  shoulders  and  neck,  and  cutting  down  the  back 
and  legs  to  the  heels;  they  then  cut  the  skin  at  the  top  and  pulled  it  off  strip 
by  strip,  until  death  came  to  the  wretched  man's  relief.  The  story  of  this 
horrible  act  was  scattered  broadcast  throughout  the  western  country,  and 
thereafter  the  Pawnees  were  treated  in  a  deferential  manner  by  people  pass- 
ing through  their  country. 

The  nation  originally  was  governed  by  one  chief,  the  position  being  hered- 
itary, but  the  ruler  could  be  deposed  should  he  not  have  the  necessary  quali- 
fications for  the  office. 


TWENTY    YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE    INDIANS.  273 

Each  of  the  tribes  had  its  own  chief.  Tribal  chiefs  had  sub-chiefs  for  their 
staffs  as  advisers.  These  ruled  the  affairs  of  the  tribe,  but  they  were  all 
subservient  to  the  grand  chief.  When  there  was  to  be  discussed  an  impor- 
tant matter  affecting  the  whole  nation,  the  head  chief  called  the  chiefs  of  the 
tribes  with  their  staffs  together,  when  the  matter  was  debated  by  all  present; 
but  should  the  decision  of  the  majority  be  against  tbe  opinion  or  desire  of  the 
head  chief,  he  was  compelled  to  submit. 

Constant  warfare  reduced  the  number  of  men  greatly,  consequently  there 
were  many  more  females  than  males.  This  may  account  for  the  numerous 
wives  each  man  had;  all  the  wives  and  children  of  the  man  lived  together  in 
seeming  contentment,  and  the  articles  a  woman  used  during  the  life  of  the 
husband  were  supposed  to  belong  to  her.  After  h  s  death  she  could  live 
with  the  family  as  long  as  she  did  not  become  the  wife  of  another  man;  if 
she  did  so,  she  carried  her  belongings  with  her.  Should  a  widow  have  con- 
siderable property,  she  was  much  sought  after,  as  she  cost  nothing  and 
brought  wealth  besides. 

They  had  a  crude  religion,  and  priests  who  were  supposed  to  be  the 
medium  of  communication  between  them  and  the  Great  Spirit. 

Priests  did  not  exercise  the  functions  of  medicine  as  known  by  the  more 
westerly  nations,  and  were  not  supposed  to  heal  the  sick. 

For  this  purpose  they  had  doctors  whose  duty  was  to  look  after  and  care 
for  the  afflicted,  whom  they  treated  with  teas,  roots,  and  herbs. 

The  Pawnees  were  exceedingly  superstitious  in  relation  to  their  "medicine 
bag";  every  habitation  had  its  family  medicine  bag,  which  was  about  the 
size  of  a  child's  head.  It  was  supposed  to  contain  the  "medicine"  necessary 
to  bring  them  all  the  good  luck  desired  ;  they  also  believed  it  to  be  efficacious 
in  keeping  away  disease,  as  well  as  in  assisting  them  in  all  their  undertak- 
ings. This  bag  was  scrupulously  guarded,  and  no  member  of  a  family  could 
be  induced  to  speak  of  its  contents. 

Each  individual  also  carried  a  small  medicine  bag  on  his  person.  This 
was  considered  a  great  charm,  and  no  warrior  ever  went  into  battle  without 
it. 

The  men  were  the  most  expert  hunters  of  any  Indians  in  the  West,  and 
were  constantly  on  the  chase  for  all  kinds  of  game.  They  had  a  great  many 
good  dogs  which  accompanied  them,  assisting  them  in  bringing  down  a 
wounded  animal. 


THE  WICHITAS. 
The  Wichitas  were  so  treacherous  and  unreliable  that  the  principal  tribe 


274 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 


drove  them  away;  after  this  they  made  their  homes  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
stream  that  bears  their  name. 

After  their  separat  on  they  became  estranged  from  the  others,  and  often 
made  war  on  them,  sometimes  joining  with  the  Kiowas  for  this  purpose. 
The  Wichitas  were  a  vicious  and  thievish  lot.  They  were  noted  horse 
stealers,  and  consequently  despised  by  all  their  neighbors  who  were  not  of 
the  same  class.  In  stealing  horses  they  dressed  themselves  with  the  skins 
of  animals,  and  imitating  the  actions  of  the  animal  whose  skin  they  wore, 
would  approach  a  herd  of  horses,  and  at  the  first  opportunity  seize  and  make 
off  with  them. 


REED  HABITATION — DECORATED  INDIAN 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 


275 


CHAPTER   XXXIV. 

THE  CHIPPEWAS,  OCHIPPWAS,  OR,  AS  THEY  CALLED  THEMSELVES,  OJIBWAS 

—ALGONQUIN  STOCK. 

The  Chippewas — Who  They  Were — Treatment  of  the  Sick — Curious  Customs — Widows — 
Snowshoe  Dance — Striking  the  Post — Story  Telling  Season — Large  Scars — Strange 
Burial  Customs — The  Crees  Practiced  Sun  Dancing  to  a  Recent  Date — Sacs  and  Foxes 
— Ottawas — Pottawattomies — Miamis — Kaskasias — Seminoles — Caddoes — Wacoes. 

THE  Chippewas,  or  as  they 
called  themselves,  Ojibwas, 
were  a  part  of  the  Algonquin 
nation.  Their  language  was 
that  of  the  Algonquin,  although 
more  or  less  dialectic.  It  is 
from  this  group  of  Indians  that 
many  words  have  been  accepted, 
and  generally  believed  by  Eng- 
lish-speaking people  to  be  ap- 
plicable to  all  Indians,  for 
instance  :  Calumet,  squaw, 
mocassin,  pappoose,  as  well  as 
many  other  words  are  generally 
understood  by  civilization  to 
mean  the  same  among  all  In- 
dians. These  words  are  Algon- 
quin, and  are  not  understood  by 
other  nations. 

The  different  Indian  languages  have  supplied  names  for  many  States, 
counties,  towns,  villages,  rivers  and  localities.  None  have  been  more  largely 
used  than  the  Algonquin,  as  the  tribes  of  this  group  were  scattered  through- 
out the  country  fro  n  the  mouth  of  the  St.  Lawrence  River  west  to  the  Rocky 
Mountains;  and  all  early  came  into  contact  with  white  men. 

The  hunting  ground  of  the  Chippewas  extended  from  the  Great  Lakes  as 
far  west  as  the  Blackfoot  country.  Atone  time  they  were  estimated  to 
number  from  fifteen  thousand  to  twenty  thousand,  and  were  divided  into 


LITTLE   SHELL — TYPICAL   CH1PPEWA. 


276 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 


many  small  tribes,  which  were  scattered  over  the  large  territory  they 
claimed  as  their  hunting  ground.  They  lived  principally  by  hunting  and 
fishing,  and  were  expert  in  both.  They  also  gathered  wild  rice,  which  grew 
in  abundance  in  the  lakes  and  marshes;  it  was  threshed 
by  digging  holes  in  the  ground  into  which  the  dried 
heads  of  the  plant,  inclosed  in  a  skin,  were  placed. 
The  men  then  treaded  on  the  bags  until  the  grain 
separated  from  the  stalk. 

The  Chippewas  resolutely  resisted  encroachments  on 
their  hunting  grounds;  often  proving  their  courage  and 
ability  as  warriors.  They  were  the  first  of  the  Indians 
to  come  into  contact  with  the  white  man;  securing 
muskets,  knives,  and  steel  tomahawks  long  before  the 
tribes  farther  west.  They  made  the  best  snowshoes  of 
any  Indians,  and  could  travel  with  them  as  rapidly 
over  the  deep,  soft  snow,  as  over  bare  ground  in 
summer  when  lightly  shod.  They  also  made  the  best 
birch  canoes  of  any  of  the  tribes  of  all  this  region;  not 
even  the  white  man  could  make  an  improvement  on 
them. 

In  habits  the  Chippewas  were  filthy,  and  they  did  not 
hesitate  to  eat  any  kind  of  animal ;  whether  it  was  freshly 
killed,  or  a  half-putrid  carcass,  made  no  difference  with 
them.     They  were  exceedingly  superstitious.     In  the 
treatment  of  the  sick  the   medicine  men  were  at  all 
times  ready  to  go  through  mysterious  performances  for 
the  recovery  of  the  patient,  by  placating  the  spirit  that 
had  inflicted  disease.     When  a  Chippewa  was  ill  it  was 
the  custom  to  erect  in  front  of  his  lodge  a  pole  stripped 
of  its  bark,  with  various  ornaments  and  trinkets  attached 
to  the  top.     This  pole  was  painted  in  various  colors, 
and  made  as  gaudy  as  possible,  in  order  to  please  the 
Great  Spirit,  believing  that  in  so  doing  it  would  induce 
him  to  withdraw   his  displeasure.     These  poles  were 
regarded  with  great  reverence,  and  no  Chippewa  dis- 
turbed them  until  the  patient  either  recovered  or  died. 
A  peculiar  custom  prevailed  among  them  in  relation  to  the  burial  of  the 
dead.    Fires  were  built  on  the  grave  in  the  early  evening,  and  kept  burning 
far  into  the  night.     This  was  continued  invariably  for  four  successive  nights, 
and  often  longer  when  the  deceased  was  a  favorite  relative,  or  a  noted  war- 


ORNAMENTED  OTTER 

SKIN  MEDICINE 

BAG. 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE    INDIANS. 


277 


rior.  On  the  death  of  an  infant,  the  mother  carried  about  with  her  for 
months  a  rude  wooden  image  in  the  same  cradle  or  frame  in  which  she  had 
carried  her  child.  When  a  husband  died  it  was  the  custom  for  the  widow  to 
select  her  best  wearing  apparel,  wrap  it  in  a  skin  or  blanket,  attach  to  it  the 
ornaments  her  husband  had  worn  during  life,  and  then  lay  the  bundle  away 
until  after  the  period  of  mourning;  she  appearing  for  a  time,  generally  two 
or  three  months,  clad  in  her  poorest  garb.  "When  a  sufficient  period  had 
elapsed,  the  nearest  relatives  of  the  deceased  presented  her  with  articles  of 
apparel  as  a  mark  of  regard  for  her  fidelity  to  the  memory  of 
her  husband.  This  was  an  intimation  to  the  widow  that  she 
was  at  liberty  to  dress  as  she  chose,  and  free  to  become  the  wife 
of  another  member  of  the  tribe. 

They  believed  in  a  multitude  of  minor  deities  or  spirits,  some 
of  which  exercised  good,  others  evil  influences.  Superstitious 
rites  were  performed  in  the  worship  of  both.  They  believed 
that  spirits  lived  in  the  vicinity  of  water  and  watercourses,  that 
they  could  hear  every  word  spoken,  and  were  cognizant  of  the 
doings  of  every  individual  of  the  tribe;  but  in  winter  when  the 
streams  were  frozen  the  spirits  lapsed  into  a  torpid  state  like 
the  frogs  and  snakes,  and  were  unconscious  of  existence.  Dur- 
ing this  period  the  Indians  would  sit  around  the  fires  in  camp 
or  lodge  at  night,  relating  the  tales  and  legends  of  the  tribe,  as 
they  could  then  speak  with  the  fullest  freedom  with  no  spirit 
near  to  overhear  them.  But  at  the  earliest  return  of  spring, 
which  in  this  particular  relation  was  supposed  to  be  indicated 
by  the  croak  of  a  frog,  all  story  telling  of  this  nature  abruptly 
ceased  until  the  spirits  had  again  gone  to  sleep  with  the  coming 
of  winter. 

A  widow  was  sometimes  regarded  as  a  seer  or  prophetess, 
exercising  greater  influence  with  the  tribe  than  the  medicine 
men.  When  answering  questions  propounded  to  her  the  proph- 
etess occupied  a  peculiarly  constructed  lodge,  where  she  was 
supposed  to  be  under  the  direct  influence  of  the  spirits. 

The  Chippewas  enjoyed  the  distinction  of  being  able  to  compute  numbers, 
something  which  the  average  Indian  was  generally  incapable  of  doing. 
They  counted  as  many  as  a  thousand,  doing  so  by  the  decimal  process;  tak- 
ing ten,  the  number  of  fingers,  as  the  basis  or  unit,  then  counting  ten  for  each 
finger,  which  made  a  hundred,  repeating  the  process  until  they  had  counted 
a  thousand.  The  value  of  a  dollar  was  at  first  a  puzzle  to  them  when  trad- 
ing, but  by  taking  the  exchange  standard  of  a  dollar  in  skins  they  could  by 


WOODEN  AR- 
ROWHEAD. 


278  TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG  OUR  HOSTILE   INDIANS. 

their  method  of  computation  deal  with  the  white  man  without  giving  him 
much  opportunity  to  swindle  them.  Thus,  if  a  dollar  was  worth  so  many 
raccoon  skins,  they  computed  from  that  basis  how  much  they  should  receive 
for  so  many  beaver,  otter,  wolf  or  other  skins. 

The  Chippewas  did  not  practice  polygamy  to  any  great  extent.  They 
rarely  had  more  than  two  wives,  and  frequently  only  one.  This  may  be 
accounted  for  partly  by  the  fact  that  they  were  not  constantly  at  war  like 
many  other  Indians,  consequently  the  women  did  not  greatly  outnumber 
the  men.  The  men  had  some  regard  for  their  wives;  in  this  respect,  they 
frequently  excelled  the  white  man  with  whom  they  were  brought  in  contact. 
When  traders  arrived  among  them,  the  Chippewas  often  secreted  their 
women  until  the  white  men  had  departed — a  proceeding  that  was  not  very 
complimentary  to  the  white  men  in  that  country  at  the  time. 

Every  year,  at  the  approach  of  winter,  when  the  first  heavy  snow  fell, 
they  celebrated  the  event  with  a  snowshoe  dance,  a  practice  peculiar  to  the 
Chippewas  alone.  Its  object  was  to  manifest  their  gratitude  to  the  Great 
Creator  for  sending  the  snow,  which  enabled  them  to  chase  and  secure  game 
with  greater  facility.  The  ceremony  did  not  differ  from  the  ordinary  Indian 
dance,  save  that  it  lacked  the  savagery  and  ferocity  that  characterized  In- 
dian.dances  in  general.  The  men  jumped  around  in  a  circle,  dancing,  utter- 
ing whoops  and  yells,  and  waving  their  weapons  of  the  chase  to  the  rattle  of 
their  tom-toms. 

A  custom  commonly  practiced  by  them  was  that  known  as  striking  the 
post.  On  these  occasions  a  largo  number  of  the  tribe,  both  men  and  women, 
assembled.  The  warriors  circled  around  the  pole,  uttering  fierce  cries,  danc- 
ing to  the  unceasing  beat  of  the  tom-toms,  and  wildly  brandishing  their  war 
weapons.  Then  all  suddenly  stopped,  when  one,  usuall}  a  chief  or  noted 
warrior,  rushed  madly  at  the  post,  striking  it  with  his  tomahawk.  Amid 
the  silence  that  followed,  the  brave  recounted  one  or  more  of  his  exploits  to 
the  multitude.  His  story  generally  described  some  desperate  encounter  in 
battle,  how  he  met  his  foe  in  single  combat  and  scalped  him;  or  perhaps  a 
successful  contest  with  an  infuriated  bear,  wolf,  or  other  fierce  animal.  These 
stories  were  very  graphically  told,  and  invariably  highly  exaggerated  in  the 
Indian's  usual  manner;  although  it  was  not  uncommon  to  see  a  brave  bear- 
ing on  his  body  unmistakable  scars  of  encounters  with  both  man  and  beast. 
Most  of  the  warriors  present  took  their  turn  at  story  telling ;  at  times  some  of 
the  old  men,  carried  away  by  the  enthusiasm  of  the  moment,  would  sud- 
denly rise  from  the  circle,  where  they  sat  apart,  and  rushing  to  the  pole  nar- 
rated wonderful  exploits  they  had  performed  in  their  youth,  quite  outdoing 
in  boastfulness  all  who  had  preceded  them. 


TWENTY   YEARS  AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS.  279 

THE  CREES. 

The  Crees  were  another  tribe  of  Algonquins,  speaking  that  language. 
Originally  they  claimed  as  their  hunting  ground  the  immense  territory  lying 
between  Lakes  Athabaska  and  Winnipeg,  and  from  Hudson's  Bay  to  the 
Rocky  Mountains.  In  early  days  they  were  a  warlike  people,  repeatedly 
driving  their  neighbors,  the  Atbabaskas,  far  away  to  the  north.  They  early 
acquired  firearms  and  were  fairly  proficient  in  their  use.  They  were  not  of 
large  stature,  but  were  well  built,  having  a  smooth  skin  of  a  light  copper 
color. 

At  this  time  they  numbered  from  three  to  five  thousand,  but  small-pox 
reduced  them  greatly.  After  the  visitation  of  this  scourge  they  allied  with 
the  Assiniboins;  being  unlike  the  latter  in  many  respects,  they  refused  to 
conform  to  the  customs  of  the  Assiniboins,  then  moving  farther  north  made 
their  homes  between  them  and  the  Blackfoot  country. 

Nearly  all  Algonquin  tribes  were  intelligent,  readily  adopting  the  customs 
of  civilization.  The  Crees  retained  their  savage  ways  more  persistently 
than  any  other  tribe  of  this  family,  and  were  very  fierce  toward  many  of 
their  Indian  neighbors.  Coming  in  contact  with  the  French  trappers  and 
voyageurs,  as  well  as  the  employees  of  the  various  Fur  Companies,  the 
French  Canadians  took  many  of  their  women  as  wives;  the  half-breeds  and 
their  numerous  descendants  in  that  region  to-day  are  largely  of  Cree  blood. 

The  Crees  were  firm  believers  in  the  Sun  Dance,  practicing  this  cruel  cere- 
mony after  the  manner  of  the  Sioux. 

They  held  this  dance  up  to  a  recent  date,  persistently  refusing  to  discon- 
tinue it,  claiming  that  it  was  a  religious  ceremony  which  they  had  a  right 
to  perform.  After  the  whites  settled  in  the  Cree  country  both  the  local 
authorities  and  the  United  States  Government  used  their  best  efforts  to  pre- 
vent it>  but  without  success. 


THE  KASKASIAS  AND  OTHER  ALGONQUIN  TRIBES. 

The  Kaskasias  were  one  of  a  number  of  Algonquin  tribes  that  occupied 
the  territory  between  the  Wabash  and  the  Mississippi  Rivers.  These  tribes 
formed  a  sort  of  confederacy.  They  were  the  Kaskasias,  the  Cahokias, 
Tamaronas,  Peorias  and  the  Michigamis.  All  these  confederated  tribes 
were  known  under  the  name  of  Illinois.  In  the  early  part  of  the  century 
they  ceded  their  lands  to  the  United  States  Government,  and  moved  west  of 
the  Mississippi. 


280  TWENTY   YEARS  AMONG  OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 

THE  M1AMIS. 

These  Indians  originally  came  from  the  western  part  of  Ohio  and  eastern 
part  of  Indiana.  They  occupied  the  country  south  of  the  Maumee  River, 
and  as  far  as  the  Wabash.  They  were  removed  to  Kansas  and  lived  in  the 
southeastern  part  of  that  State.  At  one  time  they  were  estimated  to  number 
ten  thousand  souls,  and  to  have  been  very  fierce  warriors.  Since  their  re- 
moval to  Kansas  they  have  lived  a  sort  of  half -civilized  life. 


THE   POTTAWATTOMIES. 

These  people  originally  occupied  the  country  around  Green  Bay,  Wiscon- 
sin, but  subsequently  pushed  to  the  territory  of  the  Miamis,  whom  they  ex- 
pelled from  the  region  around  the  southern  end  of  Lake  Michigan.  They 
subsequently  moved  to  Kansas,  and  thence  to  the  Indian  Territory. 


THE  OTTAWAS. 

The  Ottawas  were  a  portion  of  the  Algonquin  stock,  and  originally  lived 
on  the  banks  of  the  river  of  the  same  name.  They  compelled  the  Hurons 
and  other  peoples  to  pay  them  tribute  for  the  privilege  of  passing  up  and 
down  the  river  through  their  territory.  A  small  portion  of  the  same  nation 
lived  formerly  in  the  upper  part  of  the  peninsula  of  Michigan.  When  the 
Hurons  were  attacked  and  almost  destroyed  by  the  Six  Nations,  the  Ottawas 
suffered  greatly,  and  the  remnant  of  the  nation  fled,  taking  refuge  on  the 
southwestern  extremity  of  Lake  Superior. 


THE  SACS  AND    FOXES. 

The  Outagamias  or  Sacs  were  of  Algonquin  stock  and  originally  occupied 
the  country  about  Green  Bay,  Wisconsin.  They  allied  themselves  with  the 
Kickapoos,  their  neighbors  on  the  south,  finally  advancing  toward  the  Illinois 
River,  driving  out  the  tribes  inhabiting  that  territory.  They  were  finally 


TWENTY   YEARS  AMONG  OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 


281 


removed  to  Kansas,  where  they  rapidly  increased  in  numbers, 
hoko  tribe  refused  to  leave 
their  home  in  Black  River. 
These  people  have  always 
been  noted  for  their  superior 
intelligence  and  their  great 
powers  in  war.  Although  liv- 
ing far  to  the  east  they  refused 
to  adopt  the  customs  of  civili- 
zation. 

The  Sacs  and  Foxes  adopted 
among  their  numbers  warriors 
belonging  to  other  tribes, 
whom  they  made  chiefs.  One 
of  whom,  Black  Hawk,  was  a 
Pottawattomie  by  birth.  Keo- 
kuk  was  also  one  of  their 
prominent  men.  During  the 
Black  Hawk  war  they  allied 
with  the  Winnebagoes. 


The  Noko- 


VARIOUS  TRIBES. 


BEAR   CLAW  NECKLACE — HEAD  COVERING  MADE  OP 

SKINS — HORSEHAIR   ORNAMENTATION — 

SAC   AND   FOX. 


There  were  in  Texas  various 
Indian  peoples.  On  the  head- 
waters of  the  Brazos  River  lived  the  Huecos  or  Wacoes.  They  were  a  small 
number  of  Indians  who  had  lived  there  for  a  long  time.  Little  is  known  of 
their  origin,  but  they  had  a  language  of  their  own.  In  the  early  part  of  this  cen- 
tury their  numbers  were  less  than  one  hundred.  Somewhere  about  1840  they 
numbered  about  four  hundred,  and  now  are  partly  civilized.  The 
Keechies  were  also  another  small  body  of  Indians  living  in  northwestern 
Texas,  having  a  language  of  their  own.  In  the  early  part  of  this  century 
they  numbered  from  sixty  to  seventy-h've,  in  1840  they  numbered  from  two 
to  three  hundred.  The  several  members  of  these  small  tribes  who  lived 
together  as  neighbors,  held  friendly  intercourse,  and  lived  at  peace  with  other, 
were  more  or  less  of  different  stock.  The  languages,  manners  and  customs 
in  some  instances  were  very  different,  while  among  some  of  the  others  they 
had  a  strong  resemblance  both  in  language  and  habits.  The  language  of  the 
Wacoes,  Tawaconies,  lones  were  similar,  while  others  were  totally  different. 


282  TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG  OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 

The  Caddoes  constituted  one  linguistic  stock.  Shortly  after  the  acquisi- 
tion of  Texas  by  the  United  States,  they  numbered  about  two  thousand;  ten 
years  later  they  numbered  about  fifteen  hundred,  and  at  present  there  is 
only  a  remnant  of  the  tribe  left,  numbering  about  four  hundred.  They  had 
their  home  in  northwestern  Texas,  and  were  neighbors  to  the  Tonka  ways. 
Little  is  to  be  said  of  them,  as  little  is  known.  When  I  last  saw  them  it  was 
about  the  year  1869  or  1870.  They  were  partially  civilized  and  lived  at 
peace  with  all  their  neighbors. 


THE  SEMINOLES. 

These  people  originally  belonged  to  the  Appalache  family  and  had  their 
home  in  Florida,  and  too  much  has  been  written  of  their  history  for  me  to 
say  anything  about  them  during  the  time  they  lived  in  their  original  terri- 
tory ;  but  that  they  married  and  intermarried  with  the  negroes  is  evidenced 
by  the  fact  that  a  large  portion  of  the  Seminoles,  after  they  were  removed 
from  Florida,  had  their  home  in  Texas  on  the  Kio  Grande,  in  and  about  Fort 
Duncan  or  the  town  of  Eagle  Pass,  and  bore  all  the  characteristic?  of  the  Afri- 
can. Here  they  lived  after  a  style  more  Mexican  than  Indian.  Few  of  them 
were  less  than  half-blood  negro.  Their  hair  was  curly,  their  noses  flat,  and  in 
appearance  looked  like  the  African.  Among  their  number  were  some 
very  old  people  who  could  speak  a  little  English.  They  had  a  language  of 
their  own,  which  was  guttural  and  sounded  very  much  like  that  of  the 
ignorant  negro  of  slavery  days. 

The  Seminoles  were  employed  as  guides  by  the  troops  and  others  in 
Texas.  They  were  efficient  in  running  the  trail ;  this  was  about  the  only 
Indian  trait  they  possessed.  They  raised  sheep,  goats  and  other  animals  in 
large  numbers,  but  made  only  slight  advances  in  the  arts  of  civilization. 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG  OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS.  283 


CHAPTER    XXXV. 

THE    NEZ  PERCES,  OR   PIERCED-NOSED    INDIANS— ON  THE  WARPATH-SUR- 
RENDER OF  CHIEF  JOSEPH— THE  CAYUSES. 

A  Part  of  the  Shahaptin  Family — How  the  Nez  Perces  were  first  Discovered—  Their 
Pierced  Noses — An  Intelligent  Tribe— White  Squatters — First  Outbreak  against 
the  Whites — Going  on  the  Warpath — Organizing  a  Bloody  Campaign — A  Fierce 
Battle — Indian  Tactics — Troops  in  Pursuit— Peculiar  Incident  of  the  Battle — Birth 
of  a  Child  during  the  Engagement — Chief  Joseph — His  Daughter  Lost  in  the  Confu- 
sion of  Battle — Devoured  by  Wild  Animals — The  Chief's  only  Heir — His  Wonderful 
Retreat  of  Two  Thousand  Miles — His  Military  Ability — Indians  Fighting  with  their 
Clothes  On — Rare  Instance  of  Indian  Magnanimity — Surrender  of  Chief  Joseph — 
Asking  no  Favors — His  Patriotic  Speech — The  Cayuses — Low,  Cunning — Great 
Thieves. 

THE  Nez  Perces,  or  Pierced  Noses,  were  the  most  numerous  tribe  of  the 
Shahaptin  nation,  and  spoke  the  language  of  that  family.  The  name  was 
given  them  by  French  Canadian  trappers  and  traders,  for  the  reason  that  at 
one  time  they  pierced  the  cartilage  at  the  end  of  the  nose;  in  this  a  polished 
bone,  stick,  or  feather  was  worn. 

They  have  been  erroneously  called  by  many  other  names,  such  as  Shahap- 
tin, Numepo,  Shopomish,  etc. 

This  can  readily  be  accounted  for  from  the  fact  that  they  were  divided 
into  many  small  tribes,  each  of  which  had  its  own  name.  Sometimes  the 
whole  tribe  was  called  by  the  name  of  one  or  another  of  the  small  ones. 

When  first  discovered  by  Lieutenants  Lewis  and  Clark  at  the  head- 
waters of  the  Columbia  River,  they  were  peaceable  and  hospitable,  and 
aided  the  party  greatly  in  making  explorations  in  that  region.  In  their 
report  to  the  War  Department  these  officers  stated  that  the  Nez  Perces  occu- 
pied almost  the  entire  Northwestern  Territory,  that  they  were  the  richest 
tribe  of  Indians  in  that  country  and  that  they  numbered  from  twenty  thou- 
sand to  twenty-five  thousand. 

How  they  arrived  at  this  conclusion  I  cannot  understand,  for  the  Nez 
Perces,  with  even  their  superior  intelligence,  had  no  means  of  making  Or 
keeping  records;  and  as  they  were  scattered  all  over  their  territory,  it  was  sim- 
ply impossible  for  Lieutenants  Lewis  and  Clark,  during  their  short  stay 
among  them,  to  have  seen  more  than  a  small  portion  of  them.  I  never  knew 
any  one  to  make  an  estimate  of  their  numbers  to  exceed  five  thousand  to  ten 
thousand. 


FULL  BUCKSKIN   DRESS,  ORNAMENTED  WITH   BEADS   AND 
FRINGES— NEZ   PERCE  WARRIOR. 


Twenty  Years  Among  Our  Hostile  Indians. 


Page  284 


TWENTY   YEARS  AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS.  .285 

The  Nez  Perces  were  one  of  the  most  peaceful  and  intelligent  of  Indian 
peoples,  although  they  sometimes  engaged  in  hostilities  with  the  Blackfeet, 
on  which  occasions  they  generally  proved  themselves  superior  warriors. 
There  were  two  divisions  of  this  tribe,  designated  as  the  Upper  and  Lower 
Nez  Perces. 

At  one  time  the  Nez  Perces  and  some  other  tribes  of  their  kindred  stock 
were  the  richest  Indians  in  the  West. 

Wherever  there  was  one  of  their  camps,  all  the  valleys  and  plains  were 
covered  with  large  herds  of  good  horses.  The  owners  often  had  so  many 
that  it  was  necessary  to  mark  them;  this  was  usually  done  by  cutting  the 
ears  in  different  ways,  often  a  large  slit  was  taken  out  in  the  shape  of  the 
letter  V,  another  cut  off  the  top  of  both  ears.  A  handsome  horse  was  often 
changed  to  a  homely  one  by  these  large  marks. 

These  Indians  made  for  themselves  warm  clothing  for  winter  use  from  the 
skins  of  various  animals.  Sometimes  coats  were  made  double,  with  fur  or 
hair  inside  and  out. 

They  took  much  care  of  their  effects,  persons  and  habitations,  and  laid 
away  large  quantities  of  dried  meat,  wild  fruits,  as  well  as  the  camas  for 
winter  use. 

Not  being  constantly  engaged  in  war,  the  women  did  not  outnumber  the 
men ;  consequently  polygamy  was  not  general  among  them. 

It  was  among  these  people  that  some  of  the  first  missionaries  from  Canada 
located.  They  did  much  good  teaching  some  of  the  Indians  the  Christian 
religion,  and  also  did  much  to  soften  their  savage  instincts,  as  well  as  to 
teach  them  the  ways  of  civilization  by  which  they  could  better  their  condi- 
tion. After  this  the  Indians  progressed,  were  contented,  and  had  they  been 
properly  treated,  would  not  have  caused  the  loss  of  life  and  treasure  from 
the  unjust  acts  of  the  Government  and  whites  in  their  country. 

With  the  advance  of  civilization  is  always  accompanied  desperate  char- 
acters, whose  only  aim  is  to  secure  lands  or  property  without  much  effort  or 
exertion.  So  it  was  in  this  case;  as  white  squatters  became  more  numerous 
the  hunting  grounds  of  the  Indians  grew  less.  This  so  incensed  them,  that 
their  savage  instincts  were  aroused  to  such  an  extent  that  they  could  bear  it 
no  longer. 

They  were  brought  into  prominence  by  their  first  outbreak  against  the 
whites,  having  entered  into  several  treaties  with  the  Government,  which  had 
scarcely  been  made  before  they  were  broken  by  one  side  or  the  other.  As 
the  Indian  lands  were  valuable,  as  fast  as  the  whites  invaded  the  country 
they  settled  upon  them.  After  many  whites  had  taken  possession  the 
Government  made  an  effort  to  secure  another  treaty,  but  their  chief  said, 


THUNDER-ROLLING  IN -THE-MOUNTAINS,  OTHERWISE   CHIEF   JOSEPH— NEZ   PERCE. 


Twenty  Years  Among  Our  Hostile  I-^lians. 


ape  286 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS.  287 

"No,  we  have  kept  our  faith  with  you,  DOW  keep  yours  with  my  people." 
The  old  chief  died  and  his  son  took  his  place;  both  he  and  his  people  refused 
to  submit  to  the  decision  of  the  Government,  although  the  Indians  had  agreed 
to  live  on  the  reservation.  Knowing  the  futility  of  going  to  war,  the  chief 
reluctantly  consented  to  make  concessions;  but  many  of  the  Indians  resented 
this,  and  organized  themselves  into  war  parties,  taking  the  warpath  against 
the  whites.  This  occurred  during  the  absence  of  the  head  men,  who  were 
away  on  a  hunting  expedition.  After  their  return  they  upheld  the  acts  of 
the  others,  and  organized  all  the  warriors  of  the  tribe  into  a  fighting  body. 

One  of  the  fiercest  battles  that  followed  took  place  in  a  deep  basaltic 
walled  canon  on  White  Bird  Creek.  The  troops  which  had  been  sent  in  pur- 
suit entered  the  canon  thinking  that  they  could  approach  the  Indians  and 
lead  them  away,  as  they  had  always  been  peaceful.  In  this  they  were  mis- 
taken, for  the  latter  threw  out  a  herd  of  horses  to  cover  their  movements. 
They  then  deployed  as  skirmishers,  and  with  some  fine  manoeuvres  closed 
on  the  troops,  and  in  a  short  time  turned  their  flank.  Among  the  troops 
were  a  number  of  volunteers  from  the  settlers,  who,  observing  the  success  of 
the  Indians,  became  panic-stricken  and  broke  from  the  lines;  the  Indians 
then  made  fierce  and  sudden  dashes  on  the  soldiers,  demoralizing  the  whole 
body.  The  first  dash  was  so  quick  that  the  troops  had  no  time  to  get  into 
position ;  but  for  the  coolness  and  courage  of  the  regular  forces  the  whole 
body  of  whites  might  have  been  annihilated.  The  army  officers  forced  the 
fighting,  compelling  the  Indians  to  retreat. 

During  this  retreat,  which  lasted  more  than  four  months,  the  Indians 
fought  many  pitched  battles  with  the  United  States  troops,  in  which  the 
former  were  usually  victorious. 

A  very  unusual  thing  occurred  during  this  retreat.  When  passing 
through  a  village  of  Indians  who  wished  to  join  him  in  his  fight  against  the 
whites,  Chief  Joseph  rejected  their  proposition,  saying,  "Remain  where  you 
are,  and  let  me  fight  this  out  my  own  way."  He  also  requested  them  to  do 
what  he  recommended,  and  not  to  commit  any  outrage  that  might  embitter 
the  feeling  then  existing.  His  orders  to  his  warriors  to  spare  all  white  pris- 
oners taken  in  battle  and  not  to  kill  a  white  woman  or  child,  was  something 
unknown  among  the  North  American  Indians  in  time  of  war.  Such  mag- 
nanimity is  entirely  foreign  to  Indian  character.  During  the  many  battles 
with  the  troops  the  Indian  warriors  did  not  strip  off  their  clothing,  as  was 
their  usual  custom,  but  wore  their  breechcloths  and  moccasins,  and  did  not 
look  so  hideous  while  engaged  in  conflict. 

A  peculiar  incident  of  this  battle  was  that  Chief  Joseph's  wife  gave  birth 
to  a  child  during  the  heat  of  the  fight.  This  infant  daughter  was  the  only 


MOUNTED   WARRIOR— PAIN  1  ED  WAR  HORSE  — NEZ   PP:RCE. 
Twenty  Years  Among  Our  Hostile  Indians. 


Page  288 


TWENTY   YEARS  AMONG  OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS.  289 

child  left  to  him  when  he  finally  surrendered;  his  other  child,  a  girl  about 
ten  years,  ran  away  on  the  day  of  the  final  engagement,  and  being  lost,  either 
died  of  starvation  or  was  devoured  by  wild  animals. 

Chief  Joseph,  whose  Indian  name  was  Thunder- rolling-in-the-Mountains, 
must  be  rated  among  the  greatest  Indian  chiefs  and  warriors  of  this  conti- 
nent. He  possessed  splendid  military  capacity,  as  well  as  great  ability  in 
the  management  of  his  people.  His  retreat  from  Kamia  on  the  Nez  Perces 
reservation  to  the  Bear  Paw  Mountains,  twice  crossing  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains, carrying  with  him  the  wounded,  infirm,  and  the  children  of  his  people, 
with  very  insufficient  supplies,  through  a  rugged  mountainous  country,  in  all 
kinds  of  weather,  covering  a  distance  of  two  thousand  miles,  is  one  of  the 
greatest  achievements  ever  performed  by  an  uncivilized  man. 

During  this  remarkable  retreat,  which  lasted  nearly  six  months,  Joseph 
was  followed  by  some  of  the  ablest  generals  of  the  Civil  War.  He  was 
finally  brought  to  bay  in  the  Bear  Paw  Mountains,  where,  after  a  six-days' 
battle,  in  which  both  sides  fought  with  desperate  bravery  and  persistence, 
he  finally  surrendered. 

In  person  Joseph  was  tall  and  spare,  in  intellect  he  was  a  giant.  He  was 
pre-eminently  a  war  chief;  though  he  was  not  so  popular  with  his  people  at 
first  as  some  other  chiefs,  he  gradually  grew  in  the  estimation  of  his  tribe 
and  the  whites,  until  he  became  the  first  Indian  in  the  Northwest.  When 
he  surrendered  he  did  so  with  dignity,  asking  no  favors  for  his  people;  but 
calling  attention  to  the  many  alleged  breaches  of  faith  on  the  part  of  the 
Government,  made  no  complaint.  On  one  occasion  he  remarked  that  he  did 
not  blame  the  President  for  his  neglect,  as  he  had  so  much  to  attend  to  in 
looking  after  the  whites  that  he  could  not  be  expected  to  trouble  himself 
about  anything  so  unimportant  as  an  Indian.  If  this  utterance  was  sincere 
it  was  magnanimous;  if  not,  it  was  very  sarcastic. 

The  highest  eulogy  that  can  be  written  of  Joseph  is  that  his  best  friends 
were  those  who  fought  him  hardest.  They  learned  to  respect  his  ability  and 
character.  His  language  when  he  surrendered  and  resigned  his  freedom  for- 
ever was  as  touching  as  it  was  dignified.  He  said  :  "I  surrender  because  I 
do  not  wish  to  see  the  continued  suffering  of  my  people.  My  camp  is  filled 
with  wounded,  sick,  and  infirm;  my  brother  has  been  killed  in  battle; 
my  little  daughter  has  been  lost  on  the  prairie  where  she  ran  in  the  confusion 
of  the  fight;  my  people,  who  have  been  S3  rich  in  horses  and  the  necessaries 
of  life,  are  now  on  the  snow-covered  prairie,  comfortless  and  starving.  I  am 
within  a  short  distance  of  British  America,  and  should  I  care  to  leave  my 
wounded  behind,  I  can  escape  with  my  well  people  and  cross  the  line,  where 
I  can  be  protected;  but  I  prefer  to  surrender  on  my  own  ground,  and 


TWENTY   YEARS  AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 

the    Government    is    at    liberty    to     treat    me    personally    as     it    may 
choose." 

To  the  Shahaptiu  family  also  belonged  several  other  large  tribes.  The 
principal  in  regard  to  numbers  were  the  Cayuses  Palooses,  Umatillas, 
Walla  Wallas  and  Klikatahs. 


THE  CAYUSES. 

Of  the  various  tribes  the  Cayuses  were  the  worst  of  the  whole.  They 
were  crafty,  cunning,  and  troublesome,  being  constantly  on  some  thieving 
expedition.  They  were  notorious  horse  thieves,  and  were  despised  by  all 
people  in  their  country.  The  trappers  and  traders  suffered  severely  from 
them,  as  they  frequently  stole  their  entire  outfit,  after  killing  many  of  the 
men  when  they  could  do  so  without  being  caught. 

They  were  probably  the  meanest  as  well  as  the  lowest  tribe  of  their  family, 
as  they  were  constantly  skulking  through  the  mountains  in  small  parties,  and 
also  roaming  over  the  country  in  search  of  small  bodies  of  Indians  and 
whites,  whom  they  attacked  when  found  in  a  defenseless  position. 

When  mounted  they  rarely  used  a  saddle,  the  horse  was  guided  by  a  raw- 
hide rope  around  the  lower  jaw.  The  warriors,  almost  naked,  were  ready 
for  any  emergency,  and  could  dash  on  a  party  with  great  rapidity,  running 
away  as  quickly  as  they  came. 

Having  such  good  mounts  it  was  seldom  that  they  were  overtaken. 

After  an  attack  in  which  they  killed  some  one,  they  immediately  returned 
to  their  homes,  when  the  whole  tribe  protected  them  in  declaring  that  none 
of  its  people  had  been  away  from  camp  even  for  an  hour. 

They  were  so  secretive  that  it  was  with  difficulty  that  anything  could  be 
learned  about  their  affairs;  it  was  not  until  after  their  savage  instincts  had 
been  reduced  that  a  white  man  was  permitted  to  have  one  of  their  women  for 
his  wife;  even  then  they  were  so  suspicious  that  he  was  never  taken  into 
confidence.  Should  anything  become  known  about  them,  it  was  charged  to 
the  "squaw  men,"  when  some  of  them  were  sure  to  suffer  in  some  way 
either  by  killing,  being  robbed  of  his  entire  effects,  or  driven  away. 


TWENTY    YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 


291 


CHAPTER  XXXVI. 

CHARACTERISTICS    AND    CUSTOMS    OF   THE    CALIFORNIA    TRIBES— INDIANS 
WHO  TATTOOED  THEIR  FACES  AND  BODIES. 

Different  Linguistic  Stock — Many  Languages  Spoken  among  this  Group — Tribes  which 
went  Naked — Garments  of  Rabbit  Skins — Painting  their  Faces  and  Bodies — Per- 
sonal Adornment — Slitting  their  Ears— The  Custom  of  Tattooing  and  what  it 
Meant — Passing  Goose  Quills  through  the  Nose — Night  Watchers  of  the  Camp — An 
Indian  Bath — Ingenious  Ways  of  Catching  Fish — Eating  their  Food  Raw,  Entrails 
and  All — A  Meal  of  Grasshoppers — Bread  Made  of  Dried  and  Pulverized  Grass- 
hoppers— Eating  Portions  of  the  Bodies  of  their  Enemies — Money  Estimate  of 
Human  Life — Peculiar  Marriage  Customs— Dances  and  Festivities — Gambling  and 
Games — Treatment  of  the  Sick  Cremating  their  Dead. 

PREVIOUS  to  the  advent 
of  the  white  man  in 
California  that  region 
was  more  densely  popu- 
lated by  Indians  than 
any  portion  of  this  coun- 
try. They  were  not  of 
one  linguistic  stock, 
there  being  from  ten  to 
twelve  distinct  lan- 
guages, and  double  that 
number  of  dialects 
spoken  among  this 
group. 

In  complexion  they 
were  much  darker  than 
those  east  of  the  moun- 
tains. There  was  less 
uniformity  of  type 
among  them  than  any 
other  group  of  Indians 
in  this  country;  some 
being  short  and  of  com- 
pact build,  others  thin 

INDIAN   WITH   BEADED  LEGGINGS   AND  MOCCASINS — SHIRT  ,  ,         rmK*    A    fAW 

ORNAMENTED   WITH   WOLF   SKIN    STRIPS— GOVERN- 
MENT MEDAL,  were    tall     and     well 

formed;    none   were  fierce,  and    when   the   whites  entered   their  country, 


292  TWENTY   YEARS  AMONG  OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 

the  Indians  offered  no  stern  resistance  to  them,  as  did  those  of  other 
sections. 

The  mountain  tribes  were  more  warlike  and  physically  better  developed 
than  those  living  in  the  lowlands.  They  were  better  armed  and  frequently 
fought  among  themselves,  or  made  raids  on  their  neighbors. 

The  Indian  nations  and  tribes  of  North  America  resembled  each  other  in 
general'  characteristics.  Nevertheless,  the  influence  of  soil,  climate,  and 
environment,  operating  on  them  through  centuries,  gave  to  many  nations  as 
marked  an  individuality  as  may  be  observed  among  different  nationalities  of 
the  civilized  races. 

The  California  Indians  not  only  differed  greatly  from  those  who  were 
remote  from  them,  but  differed  from  many  of  their  immediate  neighbors,  and 
even  differed  in  some  respects  among  themselves.  Living  in  a  mild  climate 
they  were  less  warlike  than  many  other  Indians;  their  custom  of  living  in 
rude  habitations,  and  of  wearing  little  clotbing,  or  sometimes  none,  was  not 
so  much  characteristic  of  a  lower  type  of  manhood  as  their  inheritance  of 
laziness.  They  were  content  simply  to  exist,  and  nothing  but  necessity  com- 
pelled them  to  the  least  exertion. 

The  natives  of  northern  California  were  the  Yurok  and  Karok,  who  occu- 
pied the  most  northerly  portion  of  the  territory  on  the  lower  Klamath  River. 
and  spoke  entirely  different  tongues.  South  of  the  Yurok,  on  Hum- 
bolt  River  were  the  Wishosks;  these  two  tribes  spoke  languages  of 
a  common  origin.  Between  the  Wishosk  and  the  Yuki  were  a  Tinueh 
tribe,  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Eel  and  Trinity  Rivers.  The  Yuki  con- 
stituted two  divisions  or  groups,  the  one  embracing  the  region  between 
John's  Creek  and  the  Pacific,  and  the  other  the  territory  south  of  Clear 
Lake. 

The  Yuki  and  the  Tinneh  tribes,  were  among  the  lowest  and  most  degraded 
of  all  the  California  Indians,  and  were  despised  by  all  their  neighbors. 
They  intermarried  to  such  an  extent  as  to  produce  a  mixed  race,  which 
inhabited  this  region,  and  were  worse,  if  anything,  than  their  ancestors. 

The  Porno  family  also  occupied  a  large  territory  as  far  north  as  the  Rus- 
sian River,  extending  inland  to  about  the  borders  of  Clear  Lake,  and  as  far 
west  as  the  Pacific  Ocean.  This  nation  was  divided  into  various  tribes  that 
differed  but  little  from  one  another  in  characteristics  and  customs. 

The  Chimariko,  had  their  home  immediately  south  of  the  Karok,  were  few 
in  numbers  and  insignificant  in  almost  every  way. 

The  Wintun  family  occupied  the  territory  lying  between  Mt.  Shasta  and 
Benecia.  The  family  was  divided  into  two  groups,  the  northern  known  as 
Wintuns,  and  the  southern  as  Patwins.  To  the  south  and  east  of  the  south- 


INDIAN   DRAWING  ON   BUFFALO   ROBE. 


Twenty  Years  Among  Our  Hostile  Indians. 


Page  293 


294  TWENTY   YEARS  AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 

ern  Wintuns  lived  the  Maidn,  and  east  of  the  northern  Wintuns  were  the 
Achomawi,  who  extended  as  far  east  as  Nevada.  The  Maidu  family 
differed  somewhat  in  their  manners  and  customs,  and  even  in  their  dialect. 
The  further  south  they  extended  the  more  pronounced  were  their  peculiari- 
ties, and  the  greater  their  superstitions. 

The  territory  around  Lake  Tahoe  and  the  Truckee  River  was  the  home 
of  the  Washo  family.  Between  the  Sierra  Nevada  and  the  Pacific,  and  ex- 
tending southward  from  above  San  Francisco  to  Monterey  was  the  territory 
of  the  Mutsun.  This  great  family  consisted  of  four  large  groups:  on  the 
east  the  Miook;  on  the  south  and  southwest  the  Mutson  proper;  on  the  north- 
west the  Olamentke,  and  on  the  north  and  northeast  the  Talatin. 

To  the  south  of  the  Mutsun  was  the  Yokuts  family,  occupying  an  irregu- 
lar-shaped territory  into  which  they  had  been  driven  by  the  Pi-Utes.  This 
territory  stretched  east  and  west  from  the  Sierras  to  the  Coast  Range,  and 
south  to  Tulare  Lake,  embracing  a  narrow  tract  of  country  as  far  as  Los 
Angeles  county.  They  were  divided  into  many  small  tribes,  forming  a  sort 
of  confederacy,  which  acted  in  unison. 

Each  tribe  regulated  its  own  affairs,  but  in  matters  of  importance  councils 
of  the  chiefs  of  the  different  tribes  were  held.  The  chiefs  of  all  the  different 
tribes  were  subordinate  to  the  head  chief  of  the  nation,  but  the  decision  of 
the  latter  was  not  always  final,  and  might  be  overruled  by  a  council  of  the 
subordinate  chiefs.  The  position  of  head  chief  was  hereditary,  while  the 
tribal  chiefs  were  chosen  in  the  usual  Indian  manner.  Every  year  a  great 
council  was  held  at  which  all  the  chiefs  were  present.  Councils  were  always 
presided  over  by  the  head  chief,  and  the  affairs  of  each  tribe  were  presented 
to  the  council  by  its  chief,  and  such  measures  as  were  deemed  necessary  for 
their  common  interest  were  agreed  upon. 

They  were  not  particular  about  their  clothing,  either  as  to  quality  or 
quantity.  The  Yuroks  wore  a  breechcloth  only,  though  in  the  cold  season 
they  wore  a  buckskin,  or  a  robe  made  of  rabbit  skins  around  them.  A  robe 
of  rabbit  skins  was  made  double,  with  fur  inside  and  out,  and  required  from 
sixty  to  seventy-five  skins.  Among  the  coast  tribes,  garments  made  of  seal, 
and  other  skins  were  often  worn.  The  Pitt  River  Indians  wore  only  a  deer- 
skin thrown  over  them.  The  men  usually  went  bareheaded,  but  the  women 
wore  headgear  or  covering  made  of  basket  work,  often  gaily  ornamented 
with  feathers. 

In  central  and  southern  California  the  men  frequently  went  naked.  The 
women  wore  an  apron  of  deerskin  or  braided  grass,  and  sometimes  a  gar- 
ment covering  the  bosom  and  reaching  to  the  knees.  In  cold  weather  the 
men  often  wore  a  deerskin  about  the  shoulders;  and  the  women  wore  a 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS.  295 

garment  of  skin  thrown  over  them,  in  addition  to  a  short  kilt  of  braided 
grass. 

The  women  and  children  of  the  coast  tribes  wore  petticoats  of  sealskin, 
which  were  occasionally  ornamented  with  fringe  and  shells.  The  chief's 
cloak  reached  nearly  to  the  ground ;  this  was  the  only  mark  of  distinction  in 
his  dress  or  appearance.  At  times  some  of  these  tribes  wore  a  gala  dress, 
covering  the  body,  but  this  was  on  special  occasions,  and  was  the  result  of 
vanity  rather  than  a  sense  of  decency.  They  made  moccasins  of  braided 
grass  to  protect  the  feet  while  traveling  over  rough  places,  through  brush, 
and  sometimes  bound  their  legs  and  bodies  with  twisted  bands  of  hide  for 
protection. 

Both  men  and  women  painted  their  faces  and  bodies  in  various  colors. 
They  were  fond  of  ear  ornaments,  and  wore  huge  pendants  from  slits  made 
in  their  ears.  Some  of  the  ornaments  were  from  six  to  eight  inches  in 
length.  Through  the  ear-holes  was  inserted  a  piece  of  hollow  wood  or 
bone  as  thick  as  one's  finger,  this  was  sometimes  used  as  a  needlecase;  it 
was  often  decorated  with  glass  beads  and  other  ornaments.  Bracelets 
and  necklaces  made  of  strings  of  beads  and  ornamented  shells  were  also 
worn. 

The  various  tribes  differed  in  the  manner  of  wearing  their  hair.  Some 
wore  it  in  the  form  of  a  queue,  some  in  two  twisted  braids  hanging  down 
the  back  or  over  the  shoulders,  while  others  let  it  hang  loose.  Those  who 
wore  the  hair  loose  cut  it  off  at  the  shoulders,  others  cut  it  around  the  face; 
some  of  the  tribes  who  plaited  it  wove  the  fibre  of  bark  or  silk  grass  in  the 
plaits;  although  the  hair  was  considered  the  greatest  ornament  of  their  per- 
sons none  of  them  took  much  care  of  it. 

Some  of  the  men  tattooed  their  breasts  and  arms,  but  the  practice  was  not 
general  among  them.  Occasionally  they  tattooed  themselves  by  certain 
marks  whereby  they  could  be  identified  if  captured. 

The  women  tattooed  their  faces,  breasts  and  arms  in  colors  made  from  the 
juices  of  plants;  the  lines  were  sometimes  so  arranged  as  to  indicate  the  per- 
sonal characteristics  of  the  person  so  ornamented.  This,  however,  was  only 
peculiar  to  certain  tribes.  The  natives  around  Klamath  Lake  bedecked 
themselves  more  profusely  than  their  neighbors,  covering  their  bodies  from 
the  face  to  the  waist  with  various  colors  and  figures.  Occasionally  not  only 
different  tribes,  but  even  families  of  the  same  tribe  bad  their  own  distinctive 
style  of  tattooing  and  painting  their  faces  and  bodies. 

Their  habitations  did  not  greatly  differ.  In  summer  they  drew  the  bushes 
together  to  shade  them  from  the  sun.  Their  permanent  dwellings,  however, 
consisted  of  a  hole  dug  in  the  ground ;  around  this  poles  were  set,  over 


296  TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 

which  a  conical  covering  was  placed.  The  size  of  the  huts,  or  dugouts,  de- 
pended on  the  number  of  inmates,  which  greatly  varied.  Habitations  of  this 
kind,  as  among  all  nomadic  races,  were  built  to  meet  the  requirements  of 
time  and  place.  Some  were  dome  shaped,  like  beaver  houses ;  others  were 
square.  All  here  a  certain  resemblance  to  each  other  in  construction  and 
arrangement. 

A  few  tribes  built  more  permanent  dwellings,  and  evinced  no  little  inge- 
nuity in  making  them  strong  and  serviceable;  and  all  consisted  of  but  one 
apartment.  The  sleeping  places  were  invariably  arranged  in  Indian  fashion 
around  the  wall  of  the  hut.  Among  certain  tribes  some  of  the  men  re- 
mained awake  all  night  watching,  while  the  others  slept;  often  the  guards 
took  their  weapons  and  joined  the  watchers  in  other  lodges  of  the  camp— all 
fearful  of  being  unexpectedly  attacked  or  surprised. 

The  tribes  of  southern  California  had  the  worst,  the  flimsiest,  and  most 
ill-kept  dwellings  of  any  of  the  Californian  tribes.  Those  of  the  northern 
Indians  were  substantial  and  well  adapted  for  the  purposes  for  which  they 
were  designed,  while  some  of  the  southern  tribes  seemed  to  have  derived 
some  ideas  in  regard  to  house- build  ing  from  their  immediate  neighbors  to 
the  south,  residing  in  what  was  formerly  Mexican  territory. 

A  few  of  the  tribes  bathed,  or  rather  took  an  occasional  plunge  in  the 
water;  but  this  was  done  to  cool  themselves  and  not  from  a  sense  of  cleanli- 
ness. They  only  moistened  the  dirt  on  their  bodies,  and  came  out  of  the 
water  as  filthy  as  they  went  in. 

They  built  sweat  houses  of  earth;  these  were  low  and  small,  and  always 
located  near  a  body  of  water.  When  taking  a  bath  of  this  kind,  several  of 
them  entered  the  sweat  house,  then  closing  the  entrance,  remained  there 
until  almost  overcome  by  the  intense  heat;  after  they  were  nearly  exhausted 
they  rushed  out  and  plunged  into  the  water.  Hot  baths  and  a  cold  plunge 
were  taken  during  the  coldest  weather,  which  did  not  seem  to  cause  them  in- 
convenience, or  have  any  effect  detrimental  to  the  health  of  the  bather. 
Sweat  houses  were  heated  by  hot  stones  after  the  usual  Indian  custom,  and 
were  scattered  all  through  California  and  Oregon. 

They  preferred  fishing  to  hunting,  as.  it  required  less  exertion.  Some  of 
them  caught  fish  by  building  closely  constructed  willow  dams  at  certain 
places  on  the  streams,  so  that  the  fish  could  not  pass  through;  and  when 
they  swarmed  at  these  dams,  they  were  scooped  out  by  means  of  baskets  and 
rude  drag-nets.  Salmon  especially  were  easily  taken  in  this  way  by  the 
northern  tribes.  When  they  swarmed  up  the  rivers  in  spawning  time,  they 
collected  in  such  numbers  before  the  dams  that  they  could  be  literally  taken 
out  of  the  water  in  basketfuls.  Some  of  the  tribes  had  fishing  chiefs  when 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG  OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS.  297 

they  went  on  their  fishing  expeditions,  and  the  orders  of  these  chiefs  during 
that  time  were  implicitly  obeyed.  The  coast  Indians  ate  shellfish,  seal, 
and  stranded  whales. 

Their  principal  food  consisted  of  acorns  and  nuts.  These  were  often  eaten 
raw,  or  sometimes  pounded  into  a  pulp,  then  made  into  bread;  this  was 
baked  in  a  hole  in  the  ground,  over  which  hot  coals  were  heaped. 

Occasionally  they  ate  their  food  raw;  at  other  times  it  was  half -boiled  in 
close- woven  baskets  filled  with  water  heated  by  hot  stones.  Meat  was  some- 
times broiled  or  cooked  in  a  hole  in  the  ground,  over  which  were  placed  live 
coals.  The  animal  was  roasted  whole,  just  as  it  was  killed,  and  entrails  and 
all  were  eaten.  They  never  washed  their  cooking  utensils,  or  their  hands, 
although  they  uniformly  ate  with  their  fingers.  Fruits,  roots,  berries  and 
vegetables  formed  part  of  their  diet.  The  women  did  all  the  fruit  gathering, 
the  men  confining  their  labors  to  hunting  and  fishing.  Some  of  the  more 
provident  dried  or  smoked  their  fish  and  meats,  and  preserved  roots,  berries 
and  acorns  in  baskets  for  seasons  of  want. 

Many  of  the  tribes  were  too  lazy  to  hunt,  and  resorted  to  various  devices 
for  capturing  game.  What  little  game  they  secured  was  usually  captured 
by  traps  or  snares,  or  by  running  it  down  by  relays,  at  which  they  were  ex- 
perts. Often  brush  fences  or  corrals  were  built,  into  which  game  was 
driven. 

Deer  and  small  game  were  shot  with  the  bow  and  arrow,  by  stealing  close 
to  the  animal.  In  chasing  deer  the  hunter  covered  himself  with  a  deer  skin, 
with  the  head  and  horns  aloft,  and  approached  close  to  the  herd  before  the 
ruse  was  discovered  by  the  unsuspecting  animals. 

Grasshoppers  were  secured  by  setting  fire  to  the  grass  in  dry  weather  and 
driving  the  insects  into  pits  prepared  for  the  purpose.  At  other  times  they 
formed  a  line  and  beat  the  ground  with  sticks,  driving  the  grasshoppers  into 
the  pit.  These  insects,  when  caught  in  large  numbers,  were  cooked  in 
holes  in  the  ground,  over  which  fires  were  built;  at  other  times  they  were 
dried  and  put  away  for  future  use,  and  when  pulverized  were  made  into  a 
kind  of  paste  or  cake. 

Some  of  the  tribes  were  deterred  by  superstition  from  eating  the  flesh  of 
large  animals,  especially  bear,  as  they  believed  that  the  bodies  of  these  beasts 
contained  the  spirits  of  their  ancestors. 

For  a  low  and  ignorant  people  they  were  capable  of  great  endurance, 
and  could  go  for  long  intervals  without  food  or  water. 

Their  weapons  consisted  of  the  bow  and  arrow  and  lance.  Their  bows  and 
arrows  were  well  made,  being  equal  to  those  used  by  any  other  North  Amer- 
ican Indians.  The  bow  was  made  of  the  toughest  and  most  elastic  wood. 


298  TWENTY    YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 

and  strengthened  by  being  bound  around  with  sinews.  The  arrows  were 
from  two  to  two  and  one-half  feet  in  length.  They  were  barbed  with  flint, 
volcanic  glass,  obsidian,  or  bone,  and  barbed  so  that  the  head  would  remain 
in  the  body  it  penetrated  unless  cut  out.  Great  skill  and  patience  were  re- 
quired in  making  some  of  the  arrow-heads,  and  only  those  who  had  mastered 
jhe  trade  by  long  practice  could  produce  them.  Some  of  the  flint  and  obsidian 
oebble  heads  required  weeks  of  labor  to  fashion.  The  quiver  was  made  of 
ohe  skin  of  small  animals.  Despite  their  inoffensive  disposition,  these 
Indians  were  good  fighters  when  put  to  it,  and  possessed  all  the  unwincing 
courage  and  stoicism  of  the  typical  red  man. 

Some  tribes  scalped  their  enemies,  others  did  not.  All  were  possessed  of 
the  innate  Indian  trait  of  torturing  prisoners.  They  sometimes  ate  portions 
of  the  bodies  of  captives,  not  from  a  cannibalistic  impulse,  but  to  absorb  the 
courage  of  the  slain.  Their  wars,  as  a  usual  thing,  were  neither  bloody  or 
prolonged.  They  invariably  killed  the  male  prisoners,  and  made  slaves  of 
captire  women  and  children.  Among  some  tribes  children  accompanied  the 
warriors  to  battle,  and  at  intervals  were  sent,  by  both  sides,  into  the  ene- 
mies' lines  to  pick  up  and  bring  back  the  arrows.  Nearly  all  these  people 
fought  on  foot,  and,  unlike  other  Indians,  they  fought  in  extended  lines  and 
at  comparatively  close  quarters,  so  that  their  arrows  would  be  effective. 

Some  of  the  stronger  nations  or  tribes  compelled  their  weaker  neighbors  to 
pay  them  tribute.  Other  tribes  made  a  practice  of  informing  the  enemy, 
either  by  courier  or  by  signs,  when  they  intended  to  march  against  them. 
The  stealing  of  women  was  one  of  the  most  fruitful  causes  of  war  among 
these  people.  Another  source  of  contention  was  the  building  of  fishing 
dams  in  the  rivers.  The  dams  cut  off  the  supply  of  fish  from  those  further 
up  the  stream,  and  bloodshed  was  the  inevitable  result. 

The  women  were  skillful  in  plaiting  grass,  making  baskets  and  other  arti- 
cles, and  the  men  of  certain  tribes  made  substantial  boats,  but  their  skill  in 
handiwork  went  no  further.  Their  wealth  consisted  of  shell  money,  canoes, 
deerskins  and  women.  The  more  wives  a  man  had  the  richer  he  was. 

Shell  money  consisted  of  shells  obtained  on  the  coast,  its  value  depending 
on  size  and  shape.  Shells  were  fashioned  in  the  form  of  quills,  and  strung 
together  like  beads.  They  were,  as  a  rule,  from  one  to  two  inches  in  length, 
and  about  a  quarter  of  an  inch  in  thickness.  Five  perfect  shells  were  con- 
sidered to  be  worth  about  one  dollar  in  gold  or  silver.  Skins,  furs,  and  rare 
feathers  also  constituted  articles  of  exchangeable  value. 

Among  some  tribes  chieftainship  was  hereditary,  in  others  the  chief  was 
chosen  on  account  of  his  wealth  or  prowess.  Where  there  were  no  male 
descendants,  the  office  was  by  some  tribes  conferred  on  the  wife  of  the  dead 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS.  299 

chief,  a  custom  peculiar  to  these  Indians.  The  wife  and  daughters  of  a 
chief  had  little  power,  though  they  were  generally  respected  and  their  advice 
was  occasionally  followed. 

Murder  was  punished  by  a  fine,  or  the  relatives  of  the  victim  slew  the  mur- 
derer. Fines,  however,  were  not  very  exorbitant.  The  life  of  a  woman 
was  worth  only  half  as  much  as  that  of  a  man.  They  were  usually  paid  in 
allicochick  shells,  the  price  among  certain  tribes  being  a  hundred  dollars  for 
the  murder  of  a  man,  and  fifty  dollars  for  killing  a  woman.  Some  of  the 
fines  were  paid  in  canoes  or  other  articles  of  recognized  value.  Six  canoes 
wore  considered  an  equivalent  for  a  man's  life. 

The  California  Indians  had  no  marriage  ceremony.  The  girls  were  sold  by 
their  parents  for  such  articles  of  value  as  the  husband  could  give  in  exchange 
for  them.  At  other  times  a  man  and  woman  agreed  to  live  together,  and 
this  agreement  constituted  them  husband  and  wife.  A  man  could  have 
as  many  wives  as  he  could  buy,  but  a  woman  could  not  have  a  plural- 
ity of  husbands,  or  more  than  one  man  to  whom  she  owed  allegiance. 
When  a  difficulty  occurred  between  two  men  about  a  woman,  and  they 
could  not  otherwise  settle  it,  they  fought  it  out,  the  victor  claiming  the 
female. 

Wives  were  bought;  the  price  was  regulated  by  the  appearance  of  the 
woman  or  her  capacity  for  work.  The  old  men  who  had  accumulated  the 
most  wealth  bought  the  handsomest  girls;  the  young  men  who  were  not  able 
to  pay  a  high  price  had  to  content  themselves  with  the  old  and  ugly  women. 
Should  a  man  grow  rich  enough  to  buy  a  young  wife  he  discarded  the  old 
one  unceremoniously.  Some  of  the  coast  Indians  were  allowed  to  have  only 
one  wife  at  a  time,  but  they  could  exchange  her  for  another  as  often  as  they 
wished.  Adultery  was  severely  punished  and  was  consequently  rare. 
Some  tribes  disemboweled  the  offending  woman;  among  others  the  man 
who  committed  the  offense  was  compelled  to  buy  the  woman ;  while  in  other 
tribes  the  outraged  husband  compelled  the  offender  to  exchange  wives  with 
him. 

Childbirth  rarely  interrupted  the  mother  in  her  usual  avocations  for  more 
than  an  hour  or  so.  When  the  time  arrived  she  retired  to  the  forest  or  in 
the  vicinity  of  a  stream,  where,  after  the  birth,  she  washed  the  newborn 
infant  and  returned  to  the  lodge  with  the  babe  strapped  to  a  board  on  her 
back,  resuming  her  usual  work. 

They  had  few  games  or  pastimes,  but  owing  to  their  indolence,  took 
little  interest  in  them.  In  games  of  chance  the  winner  did  not  exult  in  his 
success,  nor  did  the  loser  manifest  regret  over  his  losses. 

Both  men  and  women  often  gambled  away  the  last  article  of  clothing  in 


300  TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG  OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 

their  possession,  after  which  they  went  about  naked,  and  with  a  satisfied  air, 
as  though  owning  the  effects  of  the  whole  tribe. 

They  had  dances  at  intervals  and  festivals  on  certain  occasions,  such  as 
the  season  when  they  gathered  acorns  and  nuts  for  winter,  or  after  a  success- 
ful hunt,  and  upon  other  important  events.  They  usually  danced  naked. 
Their  music  was  of  the  rudest  kind,  and  consisted  of  beating  on  skin  drums, 
or  blowing  a  reed  whistle. 

The  California  Indians  seemed  to  be  subject  to  a  greater  variety  of  dis- 
eases than  any  others  of  the  Western  tribes.  Their  medical  treatment 
was  confined  for  the  most  part  to  the  incantations  and  mummeries  of 
the  medicine  men.  Women  doctors  among  some  tribes  were  more  numer- 
ous than  male  doctors,  though  among  other  tribes  they  were  not  toler- 
ated. 

They  never  mentioned  the  names  of  their  dead ;  although  they  had  no 
religious  rites  or  beliefs,  in  the  Indian  sense,  they  were  victims  of  all  kinds 
of  superstitions.  Having  no  conception  of  the  Great  Creator,  as  believed  in 
by  other  Indians,  they  imagined  that  the  coyote  or  small  prairie  wolf  was 
responsible  for  everything  that  existed.  How  they  got  this  idea  none  of 
them  could  tell.  They  had  an  abundance  of  evil  spirits,  some  of  which  were 
considered  all-powerful,  while  others  were  limited  in  their  capacity  for 
evil.  They  had  doctors  and  medicine  men,  who  were  supposed  to  be 
able  to  placate  evil  spirits  or  neutralize  their  powers.  Only  when  sickness 
or  misfortune  befell  them  did  they  endeavor  to  propitiate  evil  spirits  by 
paying  homage  to  them.  The  medicine  men  were  chosen  by  a  competitive 
dance,  the  dancer  who  held  out  the  longest  being  the  successful  candidate. 
No  other  qualifications  were  required  for  this  position  among  the  majority 
of  the  tribes. 

Different  mourning  customs  prevailed  among  the  various  tribes.  The 
widow  and  the  relatives  of  the  dead  lingered  around  the  grave  for  days, 
lamenting  their  loss,  and  the  widow  sometimes  cut  off  her  hair  in 
token  of  grief.  The  property  of  the  deceased  was  either  buried  with  him  or 
left  at  the  burial  place.  Their  idea  of  heaven  and  the  future  life  was  purely 
materialistic.  They  believed  heaven  to  be  a  place  where  they  would  enjoy 
all  the  good  things  they  desired  in  their  earthly  life. 

The  dead  were  disposed  of  in  various  ways;  some  of  the  tribes  buried  them 
in  shallow  holes;  others  were  dragged  away  to  be  eaten  by  dogs  or  wolves. 
The  coast  tribes  threw  the  corpse  into  the  ocean,  while  others  placed  them  in 
trunks  of  trees  which  had  been  cut  out  sufficiently  to  receive  the  remains; 
these  were  wrapped  with  grass,  then  placed  in  a  standing  position  in  the 
timbers.  Among  the  northern  tribes  bodies  were  covered  with  skins  and  left 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 


301 


in  a  sitting  posture.     The  bodies  of  prominent  men  were  often  placed  in  trees, 
shrouded  in  their  best  raiment. 

Among  the  more  ignorant  or  indolent  tribes,  neither  common  warriors, 
women,  or  children  received  much  attention  after  death.  A  few  tribes 
burned  the  bodies  of  the  dead;  these  and  a  few  Indians  in  Arizona  were  the 
only  savages  who  disposed  of  the  dead  in  this  manner. 


• 


HABITATIONS   OF   MOUNTAIN   TRIBES — SKIN-COVERED   LODGES, 


302 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 


CHAPTER  XXXVII. 

THE  COLUMBIAN  GEOUP— THE  STORY  OF  AN  INDIAN  QUEST  FOR  THE  WHITE 
MAN'S  BIBLE— INDIAN  ATROCITIES. 

A  Brave  but  Peaceably  Inclined  People — Ceremonies  when  Preparing  for  the  Warpath — 
Imitating  the  Cry  of  Birds  and  Wild  Animals — The  War  Chief — How  Braves  were 
Enlisted  for  War — Treatment  of  Women  among  the  Different  Tribes — Indian  Slaves 
and  Slavery — Staking  Wives  and  Children  on  Games  of  Chance — A  Risky  Profes- 
sion— Burial  Ceremonies — A  Vicious  Tribe  Called  the  Rogues — Why  they  were  so 
named — An  Expedition  in  Search  of  the  White  Man's  Bible — Father  De  Smet — His 
Life  and  Labors  among  the  Indians — The  Measles  among  the  Indians — Destruction 
of  the  Protestant  Mission — Savage  Instincts  Aroused — An  Expedition  for  the  Rescue 
of  Captives. 

THE  Columbian  tribes  possessed 
a  fertile  country  where  subsistence 
could  be  procured  without  much 
effort.  Although  nomadic  they 
did  not  wander  far  from  their 
central  home.  In  nearly  all  their 
characteristics  and  customs  they 
were  somewhat  in  advance  of  the 
Indians  living  east  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  yet  retaining  the  innate 
barbarism  of  the  Red  Man. 

Their  wealth  consisted  chiefly 
of  horses;  large  herds  of  these 
were  pastured  in  the  rich  valleys 
of  their  country.  How  they  first 
obtained  them  is  not  known. 
They  had  a  tradition  that  the}' 
originally  obtained  them  from  the 
Shoshonees,  who  secured  them 
from  wild  herds.  Some  of  the 
tribes,  notably  the  Walla  Wallas, 

when  first  visited  by  white  men  owned    thousands    of  horyes;    in    some 
places  the  country  was  literally  covered  with  them.     Among  many  of  these 


INDIAN    WITH   BEAVER   CAP  AND    FAN. 


TWENTY   YEARS  AMONG  OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS.  303 

tribes  a  man  was  deemed  poor  if  he  did  not  own  fifteen  or  twenty 
horses.  They  were  the  only  standard  of  value  when  used  in  barter. 
The  Columbian  Indians  were  excellent  horsemen,  and  when  forced  into  war 
handled  the  animals  with  great  ability. 

Though  living  within  a  comparatively  restricted  territory,  the  Oregon  and 
Washington  tribes  differed  in  character  and  personal  appearance.  The 
tribes  of  the  interior,  from  their  pastoral  life,  were,  when  left  undisturbed, 
generally  mild  and  inoffensive,  though  when  aroused  they  were  vindictive; 
while  the  coast  Indians,  especially  those  of  the  north,  were  ferocious  and 
treacherous.  They  differed  no  less  in  characteristics  and  customs.  Almost 
every  locality  had  its  own  tribe,  that  spoke  a  language  distinct  from  the 
others. 

Before  starting  on  the  warpath  a  grand  council  was  held,  which  all  the 
chiefs  attended,  and  the  old  men  of  the  tribes  determined  on  the  best  meas- 
ures to  be  adopted.  The  pipe  was  smoked,  speeches  were  made  by  the  old 
men  and  tribal  chiefs,  and  the  ceremony  was  concluded  with  a  grand  war 
dance.  A  field  review  was  held ;  the  warriors,  mounted  on  their  best  horses 
and  bedecked  in  all  their  rude  ornaments,  went  through  the  manoeuvres  of 
an  imaginary  battle. 

In  dress  they  were  not  particular.  Formerly  they  were  comfortably  clothed 
in  furs  and  skins,  but  after  the  trade  in  peltries  became  general  throughout 
their  country,  they  found  it  difficult  to  procure  clothing,  and  the  poor  were 
often  unable  to  protect  themselves  adequately  against  the  rigors  of  the  cold 
winters. 

Hunting  and  fishing  were  the  two  principal  sources  of  subsistence.  The 
streams  furnished  a  plentiful  supply  of  fish,  and  the  woods  abounded  in  game. 
The  Nez  Perces,  who  were  the  richest,  and  in  many  respects  the  most 
advanced,  of  the  Oregon  tribes,  raised  a  few  vegetables.  The  women  made 
periodical  trips  and  migrations  to  gather  various  kinds  of  roots,  berries,  and 
fruits. 

Salmon  and  other  fish  were  dried,  then  pulverized,  and  after  being  mixed 
with  oil  were  laid  away  for  winter  use.  Fish  swarmed  so  abundantly  in 
the  lakes  and  streams  that  it  was  easy  to  lay  in  a  sufficient  store  for  the 
winter;  yet  most  of  the  tribes  were  so  improvident  that  they  took  little  heed 
of  the  future,  and  frequently  passed  from  the  greatest  abundance  to  extreme 
want — feasting  one  day  and  starving  the  next. 

The  Shooshwaps  crossed  one  chain  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  on  their 
hunts,  but  being  at  war  with  tribes  on  the  east  could  go  no  further.  The 
Okinagans  disguised  themselves  with  wolf  and  bear  skins,  when  hunting 
buffalo,  and  could  imitate  the  cry  of  birds  and  beasts  with  wonderful  effec- 


304 


TWENTY   YEARS  AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 


tiveness.     The    Nez  Perces,    Flatheads,   Coeur  d'Alenes,    Spokaries,   Pend 

d'Oreilles  and  other  tribes  hunted  together;  the  Flatheads  and  the  Yakimas 

often  joined  in  the  eastern  hunt. 

The  office  of  chieftainship  was  hereditary,  although  some 
chiefs  were  chosen  on  account  of  conspicuous  bravery.  With 
the  exception  of  the  war  chief  they  did  not  exercise  great 
power.  Armed  with  a  whip,  the  war  chief  could  enforce  dis- 
cipline when  necessary  by  flagellation:  he  could  not,  how- 
ever, compel  his  warriors  to  go  upon  a  war  expedition  against 
their  will.  A  war  dance  was  therefore  held,  which  was  in 
reality  a  recruiting  measure,  for  any  brave  who  joined  in  the 
dance  was  in  honor  bound  to  go  with  the  war  party,  or  upon 
the  warpath. 

The  Kootenais  and  others  usually  entered  battle  naked, 
sometimes  not  even  wearing  a  breechcloth.  Their  saddles 
and  bridles  were  the  same  as  those  used  by  other  Indians, 
but  unlike  most  Indians,  some  of  them  used  spurs  made  of 
sharp  fishbones.  They  were  extremely  cruel  to  their  prison- 
ers of  war,  keeping  them  for  torture,  which  was  repeated  over 
and  over  again  at  short  intervals,  until  death  ended  the  vic- 
tim's agony.  Instead  of  scalping,  some  of  the  tribes  cut  off 
the  forefingers  of  the  fallen  foe  as  evidence  of  the  victor's 
prowess. 

Many  of  the  tribes  used  boats,  some  making  them  of  birch 
and  pine,  others  of  logs  hollowed  out  and  sloped  at  the  ends, 
and  others  made  the  more  serviceable  bull-boat.  The  Nez 
Perces,  Cayuses,  and  other  mountain  tribes  had  no  boats. 
Some  tribes  made  rude  maps  of  the  countries  they  traversed 
on  skins  or  the  bark  of  trees.  They  believed  simply  in  a 
state  of  future  existence,  when  the  individual  would  be 
happy  or  unhappy  according  to  bis  merits  or  demerits.  They 
distinguished  readily  between  right  and  wrong,  recognizing 
the  principles  of  justice  to  a  considerable  degree.  Adultery, 
homicide,  theft,  lying,  and  even  minor  offenses  were  con- 
BALL  demned  as  wrong,  and  were  punished  in  various  ways  by  the 
different  tribes,  usually  by  fines,  flogging,  or  the  reprimand 
of  the  chief. 
Polygamy  was  tolerated  and  practiced ;  though  it  was  not  approved  among 

many  of  the  tribes,  among  a  few  it  was  principally  confined  to  the  chiefs. 

Their  laxity  of  morals  was  perhaps  not  any  worse  than  might  be  expected 


INDIAN 

BAT. 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS.  305 

among  a  rude  and  ignorant  people.     Modesty  and  decency  were  recognized 
in  a  general  way  and  among  a  few  of  the  tribes  were  respected. 

Some  tribes  had  no  marriage  ceremonies,  while  among  others  the  occasion 
was  celebrated  by  feastings  and  rejoicings.  Wives  were  bought,  the  price 
usually  being  paid  in  horses;  it  was  not  infrequent  for  betrothals  to  be  made 
by  parents  while  the  parties  were  yet  children.  A  Spokane  wooer  was  com- 
pelled to  consult  the  chief  and  the  girl  herself,  as  well  as  her  parents  or 
natural  protectors  before  he  could  claim  her  as  his  wife.  When  a  party 
eloped,  as  sometimes  happened,  the  Indians  condemned  the  woman  as  an 
outcast,  subject  to  the  caprice  of  any  man  in  the  tribe;  then  the  girl's  parents 
were  entitled  to  confiscate  the  man's  property.  If  the  wife  should  die  in 
consequence  of  her  husband's  harsh  treatment  the  husband  was  disgraced, 
and  was  bound  to  propitiate  the  woman's  parents  or  relations  with  additional 
presents.  The  wife  could  be  discarded  at  will,  and  it  was  not  uncommon  for 
a  discarded  wife  to  be  taken  back  by  her  husband. 

The  husband,  in  certain  tribes,  could  at  his  wife's  death  recover  the  price 
paid  for  her.  A  custom  prevailed  among  some  tribes,  prohibiting  the  hus- 
band from  marrying  for  a  year  after  the  death  of  a  wife.  The  rule  was 
often  evaded  by  the  husband  marrying  just  before  her  death,  unless  she  died 
suddenly.  In  the  Okinagan  tribe  the  wives  lived  among  their  relatives  a 
great  part  of  the  time,  one  or  two  of  them  remaining  with  the  husband. 
When  a  Spokane  married  a  woman  of  another  tribe  he  joined  her  tribe,  on 
the  ground  that  a  woman  would  be  more  useful  and  work  better  in  the  tribe 
to  which  she  was  accustomed  than  among  strangers.  Some  tribes  treated 
the  women  with  remarkable  consideration,  for  Indians.  Most  of  the  work 
was  done  by  prisoners  held  by  the  tribes,  therefore  they  were  considered  val- 
uable property.  Prisoners  were  generally  treated  well  except  in  old  age,  or 
when  disabled,  then  they  were  left  to  perish  of  want  or  neglect.  Captives 
were  generally  regarded  as  slaves,  and  it  was  not  uncommon  for  some  of 
these  tribes  to  engage  in  war  for  the  purpose  of  capturing  them.  Children 
born  of  captives  were  also  considered  slaves. 

Throughout  the  entire  territory  occupied  by  these  Indians  their  habitations 
were  much  the  same.  Usually  they  lived  in  lodges,  especially  when  mov- 
ing about;  but  during  the  winter  season  those  tribes  that  lived  almost  ex- 
clusively on  fish,  and  did  not  wander  far  in  search  of  food,  built  themselves 
huts.  These  were  usually  from  fifteen  to  twenty-five  feet  long,  and  wide  in 
proportion,  verging  into  conical  form  at  the  top.  Within,  wooden  strips  or 
cross  pieces  were  stretched  for  the  purpose  of  drying  salmon,  meat,  and  other 
articles  of  food. 

All  the  Oregon  tribes  were   fond    of  amusements,   diversions,   and    were 


306  TWENTY   YEARS  AMONG  OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 

inveterate  gamblers.  Horse  racing  was  the  chief  amusement.  Those  in  the 
region  of  the  Columbia  River  carried  the  vice  of  gambling  to  excess.  In 
horse  racing  they  stopped  at  nothing.  After  having  lost  all  their  personal 
effects  they  staked  their  children  or  wives,  and  last  of  all,  themselves. 
Should  he  lose  himself,  he  became  the  slave  of  the  winner.  Sometimes  a 
number  of  individuals  staked  their  effects  together,  when  one  side  or  the  other 
was  sure  to  be  beggared. 

Their  dancing  consisted  of  jumping  around,  after  the  usual  Indian  fashion, 
uttering  fierce  yells,  singing  weird  songs,  and  vigorously  beating  drums. 
They  were  greatly  addicted  to  smoking  after  the  white  man  taught 
them  the  use  of  tobacco.  OQ  all  important  occasions  from  the  making  up 
of  a  war  party  to  meetings  for  barter  and  trade,  the  pipe  was  smoked  con- 
tinually. 

Their  large  herds  of  horses  were  marked  by  cutting  the  ears  in  various 
ways,  so  that  the  owners  could  tell  their  own.  Horses  were  often  left  with- 
out a  guard,  yet  they  rarely  strayed  far  from  the  habitations  of  their  owners, 
who  were  good,  though  not  remarkable,  horsemen.  Children  learned  to 
ride  when  two  or  three  years  old.  They  also  had  countless  numbers  of  dogs, 
which,  in  reality,  came  pretty  near  being  tamed  prairie  wolves.  Oc- 
casionally when  traveling,  they  used  them  in  carrying  light  burdens  on 
travois. 

All  the  tribes  used  the  same  kind  of  sweat  baths  as  the  California  In- 
dians, besides  various  herbs  for  curing  disease.  When  these  failed,  they 
resorted  to  the  magic  of  the  medicine  man.  As  he  was  supposed  to  possess 
the  power  of  curing  all  maladies,  if  he  lost  his  patient  he  paid  the  penalty 
with  his  life,  provided  he  could  not  satisfactorily  explain  how  his  medicine 
was  neutralized  by  that  of  some  rival  medicine  man.  Sometimes  he  bought 
off  the  indignant  friends  of  the  deceased.  Few  medicine  men  died  a  natural 
death,  as  they  were  sure  to  lose  a  patient  sooner  or  later. 

Mourning  for  the  dead  was  shown  by  painting  the  face  black  and  cutting 
off  the  hair.  On  special  occasions  they  lacerated  their  bodies  in  a  frightful 
manner,  and  cut  out  pieces  of  flesh,  and  threw  them  into  the  fire  in  their 
frantic  demonstrations  of  grief. 

All  these  tribes  had  an  aversion  to  mentioning  the  names  of  the  dead. 
They  had  various  ways  of  disposing  of  the  bodies  of  the  dead,  and  various 
customs  and  ceremonies  on  these  occasions.  Some  buried  the  bodies  in  the 
ground,  wrapped  in  their  clothing ;  others  placed  them  in  a  canoe,  suspended 
from  a  tree.  The  Okinagans  bound  the  bodies  of  the  dead  to  the  trunk  of  a 
tree,  in  an  upright  position.  Food  and  valuables  were  left  at  the  burial 
place,  and  horses  were  killed  at  the  spot. 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS.  307 

The  Nez  Perces,  Flatbeads  and  Kootenais  were  among  the  best  type  of  the 
aboriginal  race  found  west  of  the  Rocky  Mountains. 

The  Klamaths  embraced  the  Modocs,  Shasta,  and  other  tribes.  The 
Umatillas,  who  were  a  notable  tribe,  were  a  branch  of  the  Cayuses.  The 
Warm  Spring  Indians  consisted  of  what  was  called  the  "confederated 
tribes,"  confined  mainly  to  middle  Oregon.  They  were  comprised  of  the 
Walla  Walla  and  Wasco  tribes,  which  banded  together  in  self-defense,  but 
did  not  trouble  their  neighbors  as  long  as  left  undisturbed.  In  characteris- 
tics and  customs  they  were  degraded  to  the  ordinary  Indian  level,  and  were 
much  less  advanced  than  the  Nez  Perces  and  other  tribes. 

The  Umatillas,  Cayuses,  the  Walla  Wallas,  and  Nez  Perces  lived  near  the 
Columbia  River  about  a  hundred  miles  east  of  the  Cascade  Mountains.  To 
the  left  of  this  range  lived  a  tribe,  vicious  and  treacherous,  called  the 
Rogues,  who  gave  that  name  to  the  river  where  they  had  their  homes — some- 
times called  the  Rascal  River.  Their  aboriginal  name  was  the  Potameos, 
but,  owing  to  their  treachery  and  hostility  toward  white  men,  the  French 
Canadian  trappers  called  them  the  Rogues,  or  Rascals. 

Next  to  the  Nez  Perces,  the  Cayuses  were  the  most  intelligent  and  the 
best  disposed  toward  the  whites.  They  were  an  inferior  off-shoot  of  the  Nez 
Perces,  and  lived  on  the  north  side  of  the  Snake  River.  Next  to  them  lived 
the  Spokanes,  also  a  peaceable  tribe,  quite  intelligent  for  Indians,  and 
usually  willing  to  serve  the  whites  who  entered  that  territory. 

The  tribes  that  lived  in  the  Willamette  Valley,  and  along  the  basin  of  the 
Columbia  River  west  of  the  Cascade  Mountains,  were  irredeemably  vicious, 
and  the  savages  east  of  the  mountains  in  the  Dalles  country  were  in  no  wise 
better.  The  country  then  inhabited  by  these  people  was  generally  avoided 
by  settlers,  owing  to  the  hostile  and  treacherous  disposition  of  the  Indians. 

The  Umatilla  branch  of  the  Cayuses  showed  the  strongest  inclination  of 
any  of  the  Oregon  tribes  to  receive  the  white  man's  civilization,  which  was 
the  result  of  the  influence  exercised  among  them  by  the  French  Canadian 
trappers  and  voyageurs,  and  half -civilized  Iroquois  Indians  from  Canada, 
who  had  come  among  them  and  joined  the  tribe. 

Some  of  the  Coeur  d'Alenes  were  among  the  first  of  the  wild  Indians  to 
embrace  Christianity.  It  came  about  in  the  following  curious  manner.  A 
party  of  semi- civilized  Iroquois  from  French  Lower  Canada  made  their  way 
to  the  country  of  the  Coeur  d'Alenes,  fraternizing  with  them.  They  told 
their  newly-made  acquaintances  of  the  many  wonders  in  the  white  man's 
land;  how  they  lived;  of  the  great  things  they  performed;  their  countless 
numbers,  and,  chief  of  all,  their  manner  of  reaching  the  happy  hunting 
ground  after  death.  They  told  them  that  the  white  man  had  a  book,  a 


308  TWENTY   YEARS  AMONG  OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 

"medicine"  book  (the  Bible),  that  would  show  every  Indian  the  true  trail  to 
the  happy  hunting  ground,  where  he  would  live  forever  in  perfect  bliss. 
After  much  discussion  and  consultation  the  Coeur  d'Alenes  determined  to 
procure  a  copy  of  this  wonderful  book,  and  a  party  was  organized  to  go  in 
quest  of  it.  They  had  no  definite  objective  point  other  than  the  vague  East, 
where  the  Iroquoia  told  them  they  could  procure  it. 

This  little  band,  after  traveling  a  long  distance,  encountered  a  war  party 
from  their  neighbors  on  the  east,  who  attacked  and  killed  some  of  them. 
The  others  escaped,  and  returning  to  their  own  people  told  them  what  had 
occurred. 

Another  and  larger  party  was  immediately  formed  to  continue  the  search 
for  the  white  man's  Bible.  This  party  succeeded  in  reaching  Fort  Benton, 
where  they  sold  enough  animals  and  skins  to  pay  the  passage  of  a  few  of 
them  to  St,  Louis  on  the  steamboat. 

Wandering  about  the  city,  they  fell  in  with  Pierre  Chouteau,  an  old  trap- 
per of  the  Indian  country,  and  by  the  use  of  the  sign  language  told  him  what 
they  wanted.  He  took  them  to  the  "black  gowns"  priests,  among  whom 
was  one  Father  De  Smet.  They  recounted  to  him  what  the  Iroquois  had 
told  them,  and  enlisted  his  sympathies  to  yuch  a  degree  that  he  asked  and 
received  permission  from  his  superiors  to  accompany  the  Indians  back  to 
their  country. 

Father  De  Smet  was  one  of  the  most  remarkable  men  of  his  day.  A  Bel- 
gian by  birth,  he  came  to  the  United  State?  when  a  young  man,  and  his 
entire  after  life  was  shaped  by  the  Indians  endeavoring  to  secure  a  copy  of 
the  Bible  for  their  people.  The  most  astonishing  thing  in  his  entire  career 
among  the  Indians  is  the  fact  that  he  lived  for  many  years  among  the  Black- 
feet,  the  Co3ur  d'Alenes,  the  Flatheads,  and  other  savage  tribes  without 
molestation.  Endowed  with  a  singular  faculty  of  acquiring  languages,  he 
was  soon  able  to  communicate  orally  and  by  the  sign  language  with  almost 
all  Indian  tribes  with  which  he  came  in  contact.  His  services  were  subse- 
quently enlisted  by  the  Government,  and  he  kept  army  officers  and  officers  of 
the  Fur  Companies  well  informed  of  the  true  condition  of  affairs  among  the 
many  Indians  with  whom  he  was  acquainted.  When  war  parties  were 
being  formed,  and  he  knew  their  object,  or  objective  points,  he  was  fre- 
quently instrumental  in  preventing  Indian  wars  and  bloodshed. 

At  the  request  of  the  Secretary  of  War,  he  accompanied  the  army  as  envoy 
extraordinary  to  the  Rocky  Mountain  Indians  on  one  of  the  longest  marches 
ever  made,  covering  over  fifteen  thousand  miles.  I  believe  he  finally  died  in 
his  self-imposed  service  of  attempting  to  spread  Christianity  among  these 
wild  people. 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG  OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS.  309 

In  1847  occurred  the  first  outbreak  of  the  Oregon  Indians  against  the 
whites.  A  party  of  emigrants,  while  passing  through  the  Cayuse  country, 
were  attacked  by  the  mountain  fever,  a  disease  brought  on  by  the  extremes 
of  temperature  that  prevail  in  the  mountainous  regions  of  the  West.  Then  the 
measles  attacked  the  Indian  children,  soon  spreading  among  the  older  people. 
It  was  in  the  winter  season,  and  the  Indians,  ignorant  and  neglectful  of 
advice,  took  no  adequate  measures  to  combat  the  disease.  They  noticed, 
however,  that  the  whites  recovered,  while  many  of  the  Indians  died.  In 
addition  to  this  the  United  States  Government  had  promised  to  pay  the  Indians 
for  their  lands,  but  failed  to  keep  the  contract.  The  Indians  accordingly  be- 
came sullen, discontented,  and  finally  turbulent.  They  thought  that  the  whites 
were  responsible  for  the  death  of  so  many  of  their  number — an  idea  that  was 
encouraged  among  them  by  some  half- breeds  and  other  unscrupulous  persons. 

The  consequence  was  that  the  perscn  who  had  charge  of  the  Protestant 
Mission,  a  devoted  man  who  had  long  served  the  Indians  with  unflagging 
zeal,  was  one  night  called  to  his  door  and  killed  by  two  Indians,  armed 
with  tomahawks.  A  tumult  was  precipitated  by  this  act,  and  a  general  up- 
rising took  place,  in  which  all  of  the  whites  attached  to  the  Mission  were 
slain.  In  this  slaughter  none  of  the  atrocities  usually  perpetrated  by 
Indians  when  inflamed  by  passion  were  wanting.  The  massacre  lasted  for 
days,  very  few  of  the  whites  escaping.  Even  some  of  the  Indians  who 
bad  shared  the  hospitality  of  the  Mission  and  received  its  assistance,  were 
among  the  most  bloodthirsty  of  the  murderers.  Some  of  the  white  women 
were  taken  captive,  and  the  horrors  to  which  they  were  subjected  cannot  be 
written.  Some  of  those  who  survived  captivity  never  recovered  their  reason. 

One  of  the  notable  features  of  this  massacre  was  the  fact  that  neither  reli- 
gion or  civilization  had  up  to  that  time,  a  controlling  influence  on  the  Indian 
character.  Some  of  them  were  "friendly,"  or  "good  Indians,"  having  been 
for  years  regarded  as  sincere  Christian  converts.  But,  no  sooner  was  the 
slaughter  begun  than,  like  wolves  at  the  smell  of  blood,  all  their  innate 
savagery  was  aroused,  when  they  outdid  their  unconverted  brethren  in  deeds 
of  violence  and  butchery.  It  is  but  just  to  say,  for  the  honor  of  human 
nature,  that  a  few  of  these  Indians  exhibited  humane  instincts,  and  did  what 
they  could  to  protect  the  defenseless  whites.  Especially  praiseworthy  was 
the  action  of  the  chief  of  the  Spokanes,  who  cared  for  those  who  sought  his 
protection  and  sent  them  away  in  safety  the  following  spring. 

An  expedition  was  fitted  out  to  rescue  the  captives,  who  would  doubtless 
have  been  murdered  if  the  Indians  had  been  hard  pressed  or  defeated ;  but 
Mr.  Ogden,  of  the  Hudson  Bay  Fur  Company,  had  in  the  meantime  effected 
their  release.  The  prisoners  numbered  many  women  and  children.  How 


310  TWENTY   YEARS  AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE    INDIANS. 

near  they  were  to  death  may  be  realized  from  the  fact  that  when  a  messenger 
from  Mr.  McBean,  the  agent,  arrived  at  the  Cayuse  encampment  the  Indian 
women — always  the  most  fiendish  in  torturing  prisoners — were  assembled 
with  knives  to  kill  the  captives.  A  threat  from  the  messenger  saved  them. 
It  must  be  admitted  that  the  Cayuses  committed  these  acts  of  atrocity  under 
the  idea  of  grievous  wrongs,  real  or  imaginary.  They  had  despaired  of  ever 
getting  justice  from  the  whites. 

Meantime  a  military  expedition  had  been  sent  to  punish  the  Cayuses, 
and,  as  usual  in  such  cases,  the  innocent  were  killed  in  punishing  the  guilty. 
An  Indian  was  shot  wherever  he  was  seen,  simply  because  he  was  an  Indian. 
This  precipitated  the  Cayuse  war.  Five  hundred  volunteers  marched  from 
the  Willamette  Valley  against  the  Cayuses,  and  the  latter  met  them  in 
about  equal  numbers.  An  Indian  battle  followed.  The  savages  fought 
from  behind  trees,  and  other  obstacles,  but  the  volunteers,  all  frontiersmen, 
beat  the  Indians  at  their  own  tactics.  The  Palooses,  who  occupied  neutral 
territory  between  the  Spokanes,  the  Cayuses,  and  the  Nez  Perces,  joined  in 
the  war  against  the  whites.  The  result  was  that  the  lands  of  the  Indians 
were  confiscated,  because  the  latter  did  not  surrender  the  murderers  of  the 
whites. 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 


311 


CHAPTER   XXXVIII. 

THE  GREAT  INDIAN  NATIONS. 

Their  Marked  Characteristics  and  Radically  Different  Languages — The  Great  Algonquin 
Family— Their  Widely  Separated  Tribes — Names  of  the  Different  Tribes — The 
Apalachees  or  Mobiles,  Often  Called  the  Southern  Indians — Names  of  the  Tribes — 
The  Athabaskees — Names  of  the  Tribes — The  Lacotah  or  Sioux — Names  of  Tribes 
— The  Shoshone  Nation — Names  of  Tribes  Constituting  this  Nation — The  Sahaptin 
Family  and  its  Tribes — The  Salish  Family— The  Chinooks — The  Haidahs— The 
California  Tribes — The  Pueblos — The  Columbian  Group— Names  of  Tribes — The 
Pawnees — Their  Obscure  Origin — The  Miscellaneous  Tribes,  of  whose  Origin  Little 
or  Notliing  is  Known. 

THE  Indians  of  North  America  were  divided  into  a  num- 
ber of  great  nations  or  families,  each  possessing  marked 
characteristics,  and  speaking  radically  different  lan- 
guages. 

Nearly  all  tribes,  wherever  located,  could  be  traced  to  one 
of  these  nations;  not  that  they  possessed  written  records, 
or  had  reliable  traditions  concerning  their  origin,  but  be- 
cause the  characteristics  and  customs  of  eacbof  the  great 
nations  were  different. 

The  resemblance  of  members  of  the  same  family  to 
one  another  was  so  marked  among  all,  that  their  origin 
could  be  traced  by  their  peculiarities  or  personal  appear- 
ance, even  if  it  were  not  betrayed  by  their  language  or 
dialects. 

Some  of  the  tribes  of  the  different  nations  became  widely 
separated,  but  so  indelibly  marked  were  they,  that  to  one 
knowing  Indian  character  and  general  outline,  their  origin 
could  be  readily  told. 


THE  ALGONQUIN. 


WOODEN     LANCE 
HEAD. 


Among  the  largest  and   most   widely  spread  of  these 
nations  was  the  Algonquin.     They  were  first  found  along 
the  St.  Lawrence  River,  and  afterward  throughout  the  West. 


312  TWENTY  YEARS  AMONG  OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 

They  were  divided  into  a  great  number  of  tribes.  These  differed  greatly  in 
characteristics  and  customs,  some  being  fierce  and  warlike,  others  mild  and 
inoffensive;  some  being  nomadic,  living  by  the  chase;  others  remaining  sta- 
tionary. Some  of  the  tribes  of  this  nation  were  the  best  warriors  in  the  great 
West.  This  is  notably  true  of  the  Blackfeet,  Bloods,  Piegans,  Crees  and  the 
Northern  and  Southern  Cheyennes.  To  this  nation  belonged  the  following 
tribes: 

Piegans,  Blackfeet,  Illinois, 

Bloods,  Chippewas,  Piankashaws, 

Gros  Ventres  of  the  Prairie,  Sacs   and  Foxes,  Kickapoos, 

Kaskasias,  Ottawas,  Crees  (or  Abbitibi), 

Keeches,  Pottowatomies,  Mohicans  (or  Mohegans), 

Cheyennes  (Northern),  Menomonees,  Abenaki, 

Cheyennes  (Southern),  Miamis,  New  England  tribes,  etc. 

Lenni  Lenapes,  Peorias, 


THE  APPALACHEES,  OR  MOBILES,  SOMETIMES  CALLED  THE 

SOUTHERN  INDIANS. 

Another  of  the  great  Indian  nations  was  the  Appalachees. 

Their  original  home  embraced  the  country  bounded  by  the  Mississippi  and 
Ohio  Rivers,  and  from  the  shores  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  to  the  Atlantic 
Ocean.  In  the  early  history  of  our  country  they  caused  the  settlers  much 
trouble. 

During  the  Revolutionary  War  some  of  them  allied  themselves  with  the 
British,  fighting  against  the  Americans.  In  early  days  some  of  their  handi- 
work was  skilfully  executed.  Specimens  of  Jasper,  Quartz  and  Chalcedony 
cut  by  them  are  fine.  This  is  the  only  nation  of  Indians  that  has  increased  in 
numbers  during  this  century.  To  this  family  the  following  tribes  belong : 

Alabamians,          Choctaws,  Creeks,  Musoogees, 

Chickasaws,  Congies,  Natchez,  Seminoles, 

Cherokees. 

Some  of  the  tribes  of  this  family  who  lived  along  the  Gulf,  have  long  been 
extinct,  leaving  no  trace  of  themselves. 


TWENTY   YEARS  AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 


313 


THE  ATHABASKAN. 

Another  of  the  great  nations 
of  Indians,  was  the  Atha- 
baskan.  Their  original  home 
extended  from  Hudson's  Bay 
to  the  Pacific  Ocean,  on  the 
north  to  the  great  Slave 
Lake,  and  on  the  south  to  the 
northern  portion  of  the  United 
States.  Some  of  the  tribes 
were  found  along  the  Pacific, 
from  Cook's  Inlet  to  Oregon. 
Other  tribes  occupied  portions 
of  Arizona,  New  Mexico, 
Texas  and  the  northern  por- 
tion of  Old  Mexico.  This 
nation  had  a  language  of  its 
own,  but  the  dialects  of  some 
of  the  widely  separated 
tribes  differed  markedly. 

All  the  tribes,  whether 
located  in  the  extreme  north, 
or  the  almost  tropical  climate 
of  Arizona,  or  the  mild 
climate  of  California,  bore 
unmistakable  evidence  of 
their  origin. 

In  stature  those  of  the 
north  were  tall  and  lithe, 
those  of  the  south  were 
short  but  strongly  formed. 
The  tribes  of  this  family 
differed  greatly  in  intelli- 
gence. The  Navajoes  and 
Apaches,  who  lived  in  close 
proximity,  are  a  striking  ex- 

i         £  J.L  •     e  mu      TVT  TATOOED  WARRIOR — DECORATED   BREECH  CLOTH. 

ample  of  this  fact.     The  Nav- 
ajoes were  mild,  inoffensive,  and  lived  in  fixed  habitations,  cultivating  the 
soil,  raising  animals,  and  producing  some  of  the  finest  handiwork.     They 
were  monogamous,  and  universally  kind  to  their  females. 


314 


TWENTY   YEARS  AMONG  OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 


The  Apaches  were  nomadic,  of  a  low  order  of  intelligence,  savage,  treach- 
erous, brutal,  and  all  that  was  bad. 

Some  of  the  northern  tribes  were  gentle  and  peaceful  when  left  undis- 
turbed. 

Other  tribes  of  this  family  had  peculiar  superstitions,  and  believed  that 
when  the  moon  was  in  that  phase  that  it  presented  the  appearance  of  a  man's 
face,  that  it  was  a  deity,  looking  at  them,  reading  their  thoughts,  and 
scanning  their  actions. 

Should  sickness  visit  them  during  this  time,  they  believed  it  to  be  the  work 
of  the  "man  in  the  moon,"  and  that  they  must  make  an  offering  to  appease 
the  offended  deity.  Other  tribes  believed  in  a  multitude  of  deities,  who 
watched  them  constantly;  that  when  the  deity  on  watch  became  tired  or 
sleepy,  another  took  its  place.  When  in  trouble  all  the  members  of  the  camp 
went  through  their  mysterious  rites  to  appease  its  anger.  In  doing  this, 
both  men  and  women  were  almost  naked. 

At  times  they  awaited  a  rainstorm  to  make  their  medicine  more  effective. 

They  would  stand  in  the  rain  until  it 
ceased,  when  they  believed  the 
penalty  had  been  fully  paid.  To  this 
nation  belonged  the  following 
tribes : 


Chippewayans, 

Horn  Mountains, 

Beavers, 

Dog-Ribs, 

Hares, 

Rocky  Mountains, 

Sikannis. 

Kutchins, 

Inkaliks, 


Red  Knives, 

Sheep  Indians, 

Sursees, 

Brushwoods, 

Chins, 

Mauvais  Mondes, 

Apaches, 

Navajoes, 

Lipans, 


Taculli  (or  Carriers). 


THE      LACOTAH,     DACOTAH, 

NADOWESIOUX,  NADOESSI, 

AND  LASTLY  THE  SIOUX. 


TYPICAL  SIOUX. 


The  largest,  most   intelligent  and 
warlike  nation   of   wild   Indians   of 
this  continent  was  the  Sioux,  or,  as  they  called  themselves,  the  Lacotah. 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS.  315 

They  had  a  language  of  their  own.  It  was  rich  in  words,  soft  and  pleasing 
to  the  ear,  and  could  be  more  readily  acquired  than  any  other  tongue  of  the 
aborigines  of  America.  There  were  no  dialects  among  the  tribes,  of  which 
there  were  a  great  many,  all  living  within  the  hunting  ground  of  the  nation 
in  harmony  with  each  other.  In  characteristics  and  customs  they  were  the 
furthest  advanced  for  Indians  of  all  savage  people  of  North  America.  Their 
territory  was  so  immense  and  produced  such  a  diversity  of  natural  food  for 
man  and  beast,  that  both  they  and  their  animals  lived  well.  They  were  no- 
inadic,  polygamous,  and  some  of  the  tribes  very  savage.  The  following 
tribes  belonged  to  this  family : 

Yanktons,  Osages,  Uncpapas,  Ogalalas, 

Winnebagoes,  Otoes,  Two    Kettles,  Tetons, 

Assiniboines,  Bad  Faces,  Poncas,  Missouris, 

Mandans,  Omahas,  Minneconjoux,  lowas, 

Minitarees,  Sans  Arcs,  Santees,  Kaws  (or  Kansas), 

Crows,  Sissetons,  Brules,  Quaquas, 

Qros  Ventres,  Tribe-that-Don't-Eat-Dog,  etc. 


THE    SHOSHONEE  NATION. 

Another  of  the  great  Indian  nations  whose  many  tribes  were  scattered 
over  the  country  from  the  Mississippi  and  Missouri  Rivers,  west  to  the 
Pacific,  and  from  the  boundary  line  between  the  United  States  and  the  Brit- 
ish possessions  on  tne  north,  and  south  into  Mexico,  was  the  Shoshone.  This 
nation  had  a  language  of  its  own,  but  the  dialects  of  its  widely  scattered 
tribes  differed  greatly.  The  Shoshones  were  the  lowest  in  the  order  of 
intelligence  and  manner  of  living  of  any  of  the  great  families  of  the  con- 
tinent. None  of  the  tribes  belonging  to  this  nation  rose  above  a  low  level, 
whether  in  intelligence,  customs  or  property,  so  far  as  such  a  term  can  be 
applied  to  the  effects  of  Indians. 

They  were  for  the  most  part  filthy,  miserable,  thievish,  treacherous  and 
bloodthirsty.  To  this  nation  belonged  some  of  the  lowest  and  most  degraded 
people  in  the  world.  Wherever  found,  and  under  what  conditions  soever, 
they  had  marked  characteristics  that  plainly  indicated  their  origin.  Their 
language  was  also  of  the  poorest,  both  in  vocabulary  and  flexibility  of  ex- 
pression. 

The  Shoshones  seemed  to  excel  in  nothing  save  in  vice.     None  even  of 


316 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 


the  most  intelligent  tribes  of  this  nation  compared  favorably  with  the  most 

degraded  tribes  of  some  of  the  other  nations. 

In  personal  appearance  all  the  various  tribes  of  the  Shoshones  bore  a  strong 

resemblance  to  one  another,  from  the  Bannocks  in  the  far  north  to  the  Co- 

manches  in  the  extreme  south. 
In  stature  the  Shoshones  were 
short,  but  of  compact  build. 
Their  complexion  was  dark, 
and  the  characteristics  and 
customs  among  all  the  dif- 
ferent tribes  were  somewhat 
similar.  Their  possessions 
were  few,  and  of  small  value, 
except  among  certain  of  the 
tribes,  who  stole  or  captured 
large  numbers  of  horses. 
Their  intelligence  was  stunted ; 
they  had  no  traditions  extend- 
ing back  more  than  one  or 
two  generations.  They  cared 
little  for  the  future,  lived 
solely  in  the  present,  and 
only  exerted  themselves  in 
supplying  their  daily  material 
wants.  Some  of  these  tribes, 
when  in  war,  were  very  fierce, 
and  would  go  to  any  extreme 
to  defeat  their  enemies.  None 
of  these  people,  no  matter 
under  what  exigencies,  were 
skilled  in  handiwork,  or  in  the 
making  or  handling  of  boats. 
To  this  nation  belong  the  fol- 
lowing tribes : 

Kechi, 

Kishnetela, 

Kool-Salkara, 

Tukuarika, 

Hokandikah. 


WARRIOR     IN     CEREMONIAL    COSTUME — PREPARA- 
TORY TO  A  "  BIG  TALK.' 


Snakes, 

Bannocks, 

Utes, 

Pah-Utes, 

Gosh-Utes, 

Weber- Utes, 


Diggers, 

Comauches, 

Kiowas, 

Pah-Vants, 

Pah-Edes, 

Washoes, 


Sam  pitches, 

Tosawees, 

Cum  Umhahs, 

Wimmenuches, 

Chemehuevi, 

Cohuillo, 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG  OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 


THE  SHAHAPTIN  FAMILY. 

The  Shahaptin  family  occupied  the  territory  lying  between  that  of  the  Salish 
on  the  north  and  the  Snakes  on  the  south.  They  are  tall,  muscular,  and 
well  formed,  especially  the  Nez  Perces  and  the  Walla  Wallas.  They  were 
in  every  respect  superior  to  the  coast  Indians.  Their  complexion  was  some- 
what lighter  than  that  of  the  surrounding  tribes,  and  many  of  their  young 
women  were  fairly  good  looking.  They  dressed  in  skins  in  winter,  using 
for  this  purpose  the  hide  of  the  buffalo,  the  elk  and  smaller  animals.  Their 
dress  was  profusely  ornamented  after  Indian  fashion.  The  men  painted 
their  faces  and  bodies.  They  wore  their  hair  hanging  loose  over  the  shoulders. 
Their  dwellings  were  constructed  of  poles,  and  covered  with  skins,  matting 
or  bark.  The  principal  tribes  of  this  family  were: 


Nez  Perces, 

Palooses, 

Cayuses, 

Wascoes, 

Walla  Wallas, 

Waiilatpuans, 

Umatillas, 

Cascades, 

Klikitats, 

Molales, 

Piscons, 

Yakimas, 

Shastas, 

Scotans, 

Coosas, 

Alsias, 

Klamaths, 

Modocs, 

Wal-pah-pio, 

Warm  Springs, 

Catsops, 

Tillmorocs, 

Nehalins, 

Cluckmans, 

Calapoorias, 

Rogues  or  Rascals,  and  numerous  coast  tribes. 

There  were  many  other  small  tribes  speaking  the  language  and  living  in 
the  territory  of  this  nation. 


THE  SALISH  FAMILY. 

Another  family  or  nation  of  Indians  who  had  their  home  in  the  northwest 
was  the  Salish.  Some  of  the  tribes  of  this  family  differed  greatly,  and  had 
very  marked  characteristics,  notably  the  Flatheads,  who  flattened  the  heads 
of  their  children  by  compressing  the  head  between  two  boards  in  the  shape  of 
the  letter  V.  Another  tribe,  the  Pend  d'Oreilles,  slit  the  ears,  from 
which  hung  large  and  long  pendants,  made  of  different  trinkets,  sometimes 
reaching  to  the  ground. 

In  these  pendants  were  shells  of  various  kinds,  The  women  of  some 
tribes,  when  a  child  was  born,  wound  its  legs  and  hips  in  a  tight  bandage 
in  order  to  keep  the  legs  straight,  the  hips  small,  to  give  the  body  the 
appearance  of  having  broad  shoulders.  These  they  considered  a  mark  of 
beauty.  They  spoke  various  dialects,  but  all  derived  from  a  common  tongue. 


318 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG  OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 


They  were  not  a  warlike  people,  but  when  aroused  were  brave  and  skilful 

warriors.  To  their  prisoners  of  war  they 
were  fiendishly  cruel,  exercising  every  art 
and  mode  of  ingenuity  to  torture  their 
victims.  In  this  the  women  were  the 
worst.  Among  their  methods  of  torture 
were  burning  the  flesh  with  hot  irons, 
cutting  off  the  ears,  cutting  out  the  tongue, 
scooping  out  the  eyes,  pulling  off  the 
nails  and  other  cruelties.  In  personal 
appearance  they  were  tall  and  well  formed, 
and  their  skins  were  somewhat  lighter  in 
color  than  the  majority  of  Indians. 

While  this  was  a  distinct  family,  having 
its  own  language,  it  was  not  a  large  one, 
its  chief  tribes  being : 


Salisb, 

Pend  d'Oreilles, 

Sans  Puell, 

Spokanes, 

Okinagans, 


Lakes, 

Colvilles  (or  Skoyelpi), 
Pisquows, 

Cceur  d' Alenes  (or  Skit- 
shuish). 


Chaudieres  (or  Kettle  Falls), 


CHINOOKS. 

Another  of  the  great  families  of  this 
continent  was  the  Columbian  group. 
Of  these  the  principal  was  the  Chinooks, 
the  entire  family  being  sometimes 
called  by  that  name.  The  Chinooks 
had  their  home  in  the  present  State  of 
Oregon,  west  of  the  Cascade  Mountains, 
extending  north  of  the  Columbia 
River,  and  were  divided  into  a  number 
of  tribes.  Those  living  on  the  south 
side  of  the  river  differed  markedly 
from  those  on  the  north,  but  all  bore  a 

common  resemblance  in  appearance,  language,  characteristics  and  customs. 

They   were  small  of   stature,   thick-set    and   muscular.      In   winter  they 


READY  FOR  THE   COUNCIL- 
BUFFALO. 


-STANDING 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS.  319 

dressed  in  skins,  but  during  the  heat  of  summer  most  of  them  went  naked. 
Some  of  the  women  made  a  sort  of  garment  from  the  fibre  of  cedar  bark,  or 
of  strong  grass,  which  was  fastened  around  the  waist,  reaching  to  the 
knee.  Their  winter  habitations  were  large,  built  of  logs  and  thatched  with 
bark.  They  lived  largely  on  fish,  there  being  an  inexhaustible  supply  of 
salmon,  which  they  caught.  Their  principal  weapon  was  the  bow  and 
arrow,  and  some  of  the  tribes  made  a  shield  or  armor  of  the  dried  elk  skin, 
which  would  resist  an  arrow.  They  were  not  a  bloodthirsty  people,  and 
when  they  went  to  war  did  not  perpetrate  the  cruelties  so  characteristic  of 
the  North  American  Indian  in  general.  The  captives  taken  during  their 
wars  were  made  slaves,  and  the  families  or  descendants  of  these  captives 
were  also  slaves.  When  one  of  the  slaves  died  the  body  received  no  burial, 
being  left  on  the  ground  to  rot,  or  to  be  devoured  by  wild  animals.  They  had 
medicine  men,  who  were  called  in  case  of  sickness.  Should  the  patient  not 
recover,  the  medicine  men  were  sometimes  killed  by  members  of  the  family. 
There  were  some  twenty  distinct  languages  spoken  in  this  group,  and  all 
were  so  peculiar  that  they  could  not  be  reduced  to  any  form  of  writing,  and 
I  do  not  believe  a  white  man  was  ever  able  to  acquire  any  one.  All  the 
tribes  were  polygamous.  When  a  young  man  bought  a  wife  he  took  her  to 
the  lodge  of  his  parents.  When  there  were  several  sons,  the  family  grew 
very  large,  but  they  all  lived  together  in  harmony.  The  master  of  the  lodge 
was  not  always  the  oldest,  but  the  most  active  member  of  the  family.  It 
was  among  these  people  that  the  custom  of  flattening  the  head  of  a  child 
originated.  Slaves  were  not  allowed  to  flatten  the  head,  as  this  custom  was 
regarded  as  a  badge  of  honor  or  distinction.  The  following  tribes  belonged 
to  this  family : 

Chinooks  proper,  Wilapah,  Calapoogas, 

Kootenais,  Saiustklas,  Clackamas, 

Flatheads,  Katlawotsetts,  Molales. 

Chilts,  Alseas, 

Another  family  belonging  to  this  group,  but  which  had  its  own  language, 
and  was  divided  into  a  number  of  tribes,  was  the  Haidah.  The  principal 
tribes  were: 

Haidah  proper,  Massets,  Kaignaies, 

Chimmesyans,  Nass,  and  about  a  dozen  others. 


320  TWENTY    YEARS   AMONG  OUR    HOSTILE   INDIANS. 

THE  CALIFORNIA  INDIANS. 

One  of  the  Indian  families  of  the  west  was  that  known  as  the  Californian 
group.  They  had  no  traditions  concerning  their  origin  or  migrations, 
and  it  is  difficult  to  classify  them  generally.  They  were  divided  into  three 
somewhat  distinctly  marked  portions,  or  sub-groups,  namely,  the  northern, 
the  central  and  the  southern  Californians.  The  home  of  these  various  tribes 
embraced  the  territory  of  the  present  State  of  California.  They  spoke  a 
multitude  of  dialects,  and  differed  widely  from  each  other  in  a  variety  of 
ways.  Those  of  the  north  were  superior  physically  and  mentally  to  those 
of  the  center  and  the  south,  some  of  the  latter  being  among  the  most  de- 
graded type  of  humanity.  Some  of  these  people  wore  a  scanty  covering 
made  of  skins  of  the  smaller  animals,  but  in  the  warmer  regions  they  went 
entirely  naked.  Both  sexes  among  the  various  tribes  tattooed  their  faces  and 
bodies,  and  were  fond  of  paitit  and  the  usual  Indian  ornamentation.  Their 
habitations  were  of  various  types,  from  the  log  built,  earth-covered  hut  to  a 
mere  burrow  or  hole  in  the  ground.  In  general  manners  and  customs  they 
resembled  the  other  Indians  of  the  northwest,  though  there  were  many  things 
peculiar  to  certain  tribes.  Some  of  the  lower  tribes  could  not  be  said  to 
have  marked  characteristics  or  customs,  and  were  human  in  nothing  save  in 
form. 

This  family  was  divided  into  the  following  tribes: 
Northern  Group.  Central  Group.  Southern  Group. 

Tototins,  Mattoles,  Tulares, 

Modocs,  Betunkes,  Yosemites, 

Klamaths,  Loloncooks,  Cahuillos, 

Euroes,  Fresnos,  Diegnos, 

Tolemahs,  Pomos,  Cayotes, 

Hoopahs,  Comachos,  New  Rivers, 

Shastas.  Kinklas.  San  Luisienos. 


MISCELLANEOUS  TRIBES  OF  CALIFORNIA. 

Yurok,  Karok,  Wishoska, 

Wishosk,  Yuki,  Chimariko, 

Wintun,  Patwin,  Maidu, 

Achonrawi,  Washo,  Mutsun, 

Miook,  Alamentke,  Talatin, 

Yoknt.  San  Antonia,  Santa  Barbara. 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG  OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS.  321 

Many  of  these  tribes  were  of  different  linguistic  stock,  there  being  as 
many  as  five  to  ten  different  languages  spoken  among  them. 

Some  of  the  northern  tribes  were  physically  the  equal  of  any  of  the  In- 
dians of  the  northwest,  while  some  of  the  more  southern  were  repulsive  in 
appearance,  and  were  inferior  to  the  point  of  deformity. 


PUEBLOS. 

Another  body  of  Indians  were  the  Pueblos,  or  those  tribes  living  in  fixed 
habitations.  This  was  the  name  given  by  the  early  Spanish  discoverers  to 
all  those  Indians  living  in  villages  or  towns,  the  word  pueblo  signifying 
town  or  village.  These  people  were  not  all  of  one  stock,  but  were  an  aggre- 
gation of  tribes,  scattered  throughout  New  Mexico  and  Arizona,  and  were 
partly  civilized,  as  compared  with  their  wilder  nomadic  neighbors.  Some  of 
them  claimed  to  be  of  Aztec,  and  others  of  northern  origin,  while  many  of 
them  cannot  be  classified  with  any  degree  of  certainty.  To  this  group  be- 
knged : 

Pueblos  Proper,         Papagos,  Pimas,  Maricopas, 

Moquins,  Cosinos,  Yampais,  Cocopas, 

Zunis,  and  a  few  minor  tribes. 


"  VARIOUS  TRIBES. 

West  of  the  Mississippi  and  Sioux  rivers,  and  from  the  British  posses- 
sions on  the  north  to  Mexico  on  the  south,  were  scattered  a  multitude  of  In- 
dian tribes  of  whose  origin  little  or  nothing  is  known.  Each  of  these  spoke 
its  own  language,  and  differed  from  the  others  in  personal  appearance,  char- 
acteristics and  customs.  One  of  the  most  important,  in  the  order  of  numbers 
and  intelligence,  was  the  Pawnees.  It  was  claimed  by  some  of  the  early 
frontiersmen  that  these  people  originally  belonged  to  the  Sioux.  This  I  do 
not  believe,  as  their  language  bore  no  resemblance  to  that  of  the  Sioux. 
Their  characteristics  and  customs  were  also  different.  Their  mode  of  cut- 
ting the  hair  was  peculiar  to  themselves.  They  had  no  reliable  traditions  as 
to  their  origin,  and  I  must  therefore  class  them  with  the  tribes  whose  family 
origin  is  obscure  or  entirely  unknown.  These  people  were  divided  into 
three  tribes,  namely: 


322  TWENTY   YEARS  AMONG  OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 

Pawnees  proper  (or  Pani),  Arickrees  (sometimes  called  the  Rees), 

Wichitas  (or  Pictured  Pawnees,  who  tattooed  themselves). 

These  tribes  were  also  divided  into  various  minor  tribes. 

There  were  other  tribes  or  bodies  of  Indians  scattered  throughout  the 
great  West  whose  origin  is  obscure  or  unknown.  All  of  these  spoke  a  differ- 
ent language,  had  their  own  peculiar  characteristics  and  customs,  and  each 
differed  from  the  other  in  many  noticeable  ways. 

Some  were  intelligent,  others  ignorant;  none  of  these  were  numerous,  con- 
sequently, as  civilization  encroached  upon  them  they  were  compelled  to  re- 
main stationary,  and  live  in  peace.  Some  of  these  tribes  were: 

Arapahoes,  Tawacamies,  Tonkaways, 

Tawaccaras,  Cad  does,  Umpquas, 

lonies,  Keeches,  Wacoes. 

There  were  also  many  other  tribes  that  have  long  since  disappeared,  leav- 
ing no  trace  of  themselves.  This  is  especially  true  of  tribes  who  lived  all 
along  the  shores  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 


323 


CHAPTER    XXXIX. 

THE    SUN  DANCE  OF   THE    SIOUX— THE  GREATEST  OF   ALL    INDIAN  CERE- 
MONIES—SELF-INFLICTED WOUNDS  AND  AGONIZING  TORTURE— A 
TERRIBLE  ORDEAL. 

The  Greatest  of  all  Indian  Ceremonies —  I  find  myself  in  Favor  with  the  Indians  and  take 
Advantage  of  it — Obtain  Permission  to  Witness  a  Sun  Dance — Assurance  that  I 
should  not  be  Molested — Precautionary  Measures — An  Animated  Scene — A  Moving 
Mass  of  Animal  Life — Preparations  for  the  Dance — Selecting  the  Sun  Pole — Await- 
ing the  Rising  of  the  Sun — Painted  Warriors  on  their  best  Horses — A  Wild  Dash 
around  the  Sun  Pole — The  Dance  formally  begun — Scenes  in  Camp  during  the  First 
Day — Wonderful  Endurance — First  Night  of  the  Dance — Left  Naked  and  Destitute 
on  the  Prairie — Horrible  Self-Torture — Slitting  Open  both  Breasts — Inserting  a 
Lariat  Through  the  Slits — A  Dreadful  Ordeal. 

THE  Sun  Dance  was  not  peculiar  to  any 
one  nation  of  Indians,  but  was  held  by 
many  nations  under  other  names  and  in 
various  forms,  and  was  usually  given  as 
the  result  of  a  vow  or  solemn  promise 
made  by  the  dancers  who  engaged  in  it. 
One,  for  instance,  would  make  a  vow  that 
he  would  dance  the  sun  dance,  if  some 
member  of  his  family  who  had  been  very 
ill,  recovered ;  another,  after  a  fierce  battle 
in  which  he  narrowly  escaped  being 
captured  or  scalped  by  the  enemy,  would 
say  to  his  comrades,  "I  will  dance  the  sun 
dance  because  of  my  deliverance,"  while 
another  went  through  this  terrible  ordeal 
for  the  sole  purpose  of  exhibiting  his  cour- 
age and  endurance.  In  this  instance,  the 
person  was  generally  a  young  man  who 
was  anxious  to  gain  the  admiration  of  his 
people.  Another  perhaps,  used  this  method 
of  furthering  his  ambitious  designs  to  become  a  chief  by  thus  proving  to  his 
tribe  his  bravery,  endurance  and  contempt  of  physical  pain.  Hardly  any 
two  participants,  as  a  rule,  engaged  in  the  sun  dance  from  exactly  the  same 


FACIAL  PAINTING — BEAR  SKIN  CAP. 


324  TWENTY   YEARS  AMONG  OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 

motive.  Among  some  nations  it  partook  somewhat  of  the  nature  of  a  reli- 
gious ceremooy ;  among  others  the  motives  of  the  dancers  were  known  only 
to  themselves. 

At  the  time  of  which  I  write,  it  was  exceedingly  difficult  for  a  white  man 
to  obtain  permission  to  witness  these  savage  rites.  I  was  fortunate  in  this 
respect,  however,  owing  to  the  fact  that  I  had  on  numerous  occasions  done 
friendly  service  for  some  of  the  Indian  leaders  with  whom  I  had  come  in 
contact,  and  performed  some  acts  of  unexpected  kindness  toward  them. 

The  old  adage  says  the  nearest  way  to  a  man's  heart  is  down  his  throat; 
and  I  found  this  to  be  particularly  true  of  the  red  men.  On  several  occa- 
sions I  had  given  them  a  wacpomanie  (feast),  such  as  my  means  would  allow 
me  to  prepare  from  the  stores  that  the  United  States  Government's  Com- 
missary Department  supplied  to  the  troops.  These  feasts  usually  consisted 
of  hard  bread,  bacon,  peas,  rice,  hominy,  coffee,  etc.,  etc.,  and  after  being 
cooked  by  the  troops  such  a  meal  was  considered  by  the  Indians  a  dinner 
fit  for  the  gods,  and  gained  for  me  great  favor. 

Furthermore,  at  the  distribution  of  annuities  to  the  Sioux  during  the  time 
when  Majors  Twist  and  Loiree  were  the  agents,  these  distributions  were 
made  in  the  bailiwick  of  Old  Smoke's  tribe  (with  whom  I  was  well  ac- 
quainted), at  Bordeaux'  ranch  on  the  Platte  River,  near  the  Overland  stage 
road  some  miles  below  the  confluence  of  the  Platte  and  Laramie  rivers. 
Great  dissatisfaction  had  prevailed  among  the  Indians  at  that  time  in  rela- 
tion to  the  manner  in  which  their  annuities  had  been  previously  distributed 
to  them  by  the  agents  of  the  Government.  In  accordance  with  special  in- 
structions from  Washington,  Major  Mackey,  myself,  and  Mr.  Charles  E. 
Guerreu,  an  expert  interpreter  of  the  Sioux  language,  with  a  detachment  of 
troops  for  protection,  proceeded  to  this  point  on  the  day  set  for  the  distribu- 
tion. There  were  a  great  many  Indians  present,  I  should  say  not  less  than 
ten  thousand.  Major  Mackey  and  myself  examined  the  articles  intended  for 
distribution  to  the  different  tribes,  and  the  allowance  to  which  each  was 
entitled ;  we  also  had  the  original  invoices  in  our  possession  to  verify  the 
correctness  of  the  supplies.  The  chief  or  head  of  each  tribe  then  called  out 
the  names  of  the  heads  of  the  families  for  whom  the  supplies  were  intended, 
and  the  names  were  translated  into  their  English  equivalents  by  the  inter- 
preter. Both  Major  Mackey  and  myself  were  determined  that  nothing 
should  be  left  undone  to  ensure  the  delivery  of  everything  contained  in  the 
invoices,  and  that  the  authorities  at  Washington  should  be  fully  apprised  of 
the  number  of  the  recipients.  Many  of  the  Indians  expressed  great  satis- 
faction at  the  amount  of  stores  received  on  this  occasion.  This  gained  for 
me  the  reputation  of  being  their  friend  and  benefactor. 


TWENTY  YEARS  AMONG  OUR  HOSTILE  INDIANS.  325 

Knowing  that  the  sun  dance  was  to  take  place  some  few  months  later,  and 
finding  that  I  waa  in  special  favor  with  the  Sioux,  I  then  and  there  secured 
permission  from  them  to  witness  this,  the  greatest  of  all  Indian  ceremonies. 
I  had  the  assurance  of  several  of  their  prominent  chiefs  and  influential  men 
that  I  should  not  be  molested  in  any  way  while  witnessing  these  savage 
rites.  These  pledges  were  carried  out  fully,  although  as  a  precautionary 
measure  I  had  some  troops  present. 

There  was  no  stated  time  for  holding  a  sun  dance,  and  it  was  not  of  frequent 
occurrence.  Whenever  the  Indians  determined  to  perform  the  ceremony  the 
announcement  was  heralded  throughout  the  nation.  The  dance  was  given  dur- 
ing the  warm  weather,  usually  in  August  or  September,  on  a  fixed  date,  which 
was  designated  by  the  number  of  nights  in  advance  of  it.  For  a  long  time 
previous  to  the  celebration  of  the  ceremony  great  preparations  were  made 
among  the  tribes  who  were  to  take  part.  Bands  of  warriors  mounted  on 
ponies,  groups,  and  caravans  bearing  the  old  people,  the  food,  and  para- 
phernalia to  be  used  on  the  occasion,  moved  from  mountains  and  plains  in 
every  direction,  for  days  previous  to  the  meeting,  all  converging  to  the 
designated  point  of  rendezvous. 

This  particular  dance  was  held  during  the  month  of  September,  in  the 
valley  of  the  North  Platte  River.  After  a  great  many  Indians  had  assem- 
bled in  this  beautiful  place  the  scene  was  very  animated.  As  far  as  the  eye 
could  reach  the  fertile,  grassy  plain  around  the  large  encampment  was  a 
moving  mass  of  animal  life.  Horses  and  mules  were  everywhere  picketed, 
or  turned  loose,  all  contentedly  feeding  on  the  luxuriant  grass.  Dcgs  were 
also  in  great  abundance ;  although  strange  to  each  other  and  largely  inbred 
with  the  wolves  of  the  plains,  they  were  not  quarreling,  but  were  ranging 
or  lying  about  the  camp,  apparently  taking  no  notice  of  each  other.  Many 
of  the  Indians,  too,  coming  as  they  did  from  every  quarter  of  their  vast 
domain,  were  entire  strangers  to  each  other. 

The  appointed  day  arrived.  All  being  in  readiness,  the  first  proceeding 
in  the  ceremony  was  to  stake  out  a  large  circle  from  one  hundred  to  one  hun- 
dred and  fifty  feet  in  diameter,  which  was  surrounded  by  a  wall  ten  or 
twelve  feet  high,  made  of  the  skin  coverings  of  lodges,  the  enclosure  some- 
what resembling  a  circus  tent  without  a  roof.  In  the  center  of  this  large 
enclosure  was  an  inner  circle  from  fifty  to  seventy- five  feet  in  diameter,  sur- 
rounded bjr  rawhide  ropes.  This  enclosure  was  set  apart  exclusively  for  the 
dancers,  no  one  else  being  permitted  to  enter  it  during  the  ceremony. 

Then  followed  the  selection  of  the  sun  pole.  This  was  made  of  the  trunk 
of  a  straight  tree,  eight  to  twelve  inches  in  diameter  at  the  base,  and  from 
twenty-five  to  thirty-five  feet  high.  The  selection  was  made  by  one  of  the 


326  TWENTY   YEARS  AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 

oldest  women  in  the  nation,  who  was  especially  chosen  for  the  purpose.  In 
this  duty  she  was  accompanied  by  a  number  of  Indian  maidens;  as  this  cere- 
mony was  one  of  the  most  solemn  rites  known  to  the  Indians,  no  female 
could  think  of  joining  the  procession  against  whose  virtue  the  slightest  im- 
putation could  be  cast.  The  bark  was  taken  off,  and  the  pole  was  securely 
set  in  the  ground  in  the  center  of  the  dancers'  enclosure.  The  pole  had  sus- 
pended from  it  the  heads  of  buffaloes,  skulls  of  bears,  and  other  portions  of 
animals  which  had  been  killed  by  some  of  the  warriors  about  to  participate 
in  the  dance.  With  the  selection,  preparation,  and  setting  of  the  pole,  the 
ceremonies  of  the  first  day  ended. 

Early  on  the  following  morning  a  number  of  old  men  repaired  to  an  ele- 
vated spot  in  the  immediate  vicinity  and  remained  there  until  the  rising  of 
the  sun.  As  soon  as  the  entire  disk  appeared  about  the  horizon,  these  old 
men  uttered  wild  yells,  waved  their  hands,  swayed  their  bodies,  and  made 
violent  gesticulations.  This  was  the  signal  to  the  vast  throng  that  the 
anxiously  awaited  moment  had  arrived.  A  number  of  young  warriors, 
mounted  on  their  best  horses,  and  fantastically  painted  in  many  colors,  now 
dashed  around  the  enclosure  in  which  the  pole  had  been  placed,  frantically 
shouting  and  wildly  gesticulating  after  Indian  fashion.  A  prayer  of  some 
kind  was  then  offered  by  the  old  men  to  the  newly  arisen  sun,  when  every 
person  made  a  dash  for  the  enclosure  and  commenced  a  weird  chant.  With 
this  the  dance  was  formally  begun. 

The  dancers,  eleven  in  number,  and  naked  except  the  breech  cloth,  were 
gathered  together  by  the  master  of  ceremonies  about  one  hundred  and  fifty 
yards  from  the  tent,  and,  after  being  placed  in  Indian  file,  were  thus 
marched  into  the  inner  enclosure,  the  master  leading  with  uplifted  hands, 
as  if  to  command  silence.  Though  passing  through  the  great  number  of 
assembled  Indians,  the  way  was  kept  open,  and  absolute  silence  prevailed. 
Every  one  stood  still,  intently  gazing  on  the  dancers  as  they  marched  to  the 
enclosure.  The  faces  of  the  dancers  wore  a  smile  as  they  passed  through 
the  throng.  After  they  had  entered  the  ring  the  master  of  ceremonies  made 
a  short  address  to  the  sun  and  then  to  the  sun  pole.  To  the  sun  he  said  : 
"To-day  we  dance  to  you  as  the  great  giver  of  light  and  heat,  who  makes 
the  snows  melt,  the  grass  and  trees  grow,  and  brings  warmth  to  our  bodies." 

Having  placed  each  in  position  around  the  sun  pole,  he  began  an  address 
to  the  dancers  in  a  loud  voice,  which,  as  interpreted  by  Mr.  Guerren,  was 
substantially  as  follows:  "To-day  you  dance  to  our  Great  Creator,  as  a 
sacred  thank  offering  to  him  for  his  goodness  in  granting  the  requests  you 
have  asked.  We  all  know  your  hearts  are  brave,  and  by  this  dance  you 
will  sho-  hat  you  are  Lakotas,  the  bravest  of  all  people.  When  you  are 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 


327 


through  you  will  be  loved  by  the  Great  Spirit,  and  be  the  pride  of  our  own 
great  people." 

Then  turning  to  the  assembled  crowd  he  harangued  them,  crying  out, 
"Lakotas,  Lakotas,  Lakotas,  to-day  you  will  witness  the  valor  of  our  people! 
Those  of  you  who  have  come  from  afar  off  can  return,  when  this  ordeal  is 
over,  and  tell  those  who  could  not  come  of  the  strong  hearts  of  our  warriors. 
You  can  tell  them  of  the  valor 
of  our  braves.  You  can  tell 
them  that  the  prayers  to  our 
Great  Creator  have  been  heard, 
and  will  be  answered." 

Turning  to  the  musicians  he 
indicated  that  everything  was 
ready,  whereupon  they  began  a 
chant  which  did  not  exceed  the 
compass  of  three  or  four  notes, 
in  which  the  entire  assembly 
joined.  At  a  given  signal  from 
the  master  of  ceremonies  the 
chant  ceased,  the  musicians  be- 
gan to  beat  their  tom-toms,  and 
the  dancers  began  to  dance. 

The  spectators  now  divided 
into  groups,  or  moved  about  at 
will.  The  young  maidens  and 
women  formed  in  a  circle  out- 
side the  enclosure,  and  danced 
and  skipped  around  it.  They 
were  encouraging  by  their  songs 
and  presence  those  within,  who 
were  about  to  undergo  a  fearful 
ordeal;  stimulating  them  to  sus- 
tained effort  by  the  conscious- 
ness that  their  feats  of  endurance 
were  winning  the  praise  and  admiration  of  the  dusky  beauties  outside.  The 
old  women,  gathered  in  groups,  sat  on  the  ground  and  talked  and  boasted  of 
the  prowess  of  those  of  their  tribe  or  family  that  were  undergoing  this  crucial 
test ;  while  the  old  warriors  from  time  to  time  sent  encouraging  yells  and  cries 
to  the  dancers.  This  was  a  part  of  the  first  day's  proceedings.  After  this 
the  dance  by  the  young  maidens  and  women  around  the  enclosure  ceased. 


SIOUX   IN   FULL   MOURNING. 


328  TWENTY   YEARS  AMONG  OUR  HOSTILE   INDIANS. 

During  the  entire  first  day  the  Indians  streamed  back  and  forth  to  get  a 
look  through  the  opening  of  the  enclosure  at  the  animated  scene  within. 
The  dancers  jumped  up  and  down  on  their  toes,  chanting  their  weird  chants, 
their  heads  thrown  back,  and  their  faces  turned  toward  the  sun.  As  night 
came  on,  their  heads  were  lowered  to  their  natural  position,  but  they  contin- 
ued dancing  without  interruption  during  the  entire  night,  never  for  a 
moment  ceasing  the  monotonous  movement  of  their  bodies,  or  relaxing  from 
an  erect  position. 

When  the  moon  shone  brightly  no  other  light  was  required  ;  otherwise  fires 
were  built  from  pine  knots  which  lighted  the  enclosure.  On  this  occasion 
small  fires  were  built  outside,  around  which  both  males  and  females  sat,  or 
stood,  during  the  entire  night.  Here  strangers  became  acquainted  with  each 
other,  the  young  of  both  sexes  admired  each  other's  charms,  and  the  old 
people  told  improbable  stories  of  personal  prowess,  indulged  in  the  tittle- 
tattle  of  the  camp,  and  entertained  themselves  after  Indian  fashion  generally. 

Within  the  enclosure  to  the  left  as  one  entered  sat  the  musicians,  all  fan- 
tastically painted  and  decorated,  some  with  buffalo  horns  on  their  heads, 
others  with  small  war  bonnets,  others  with  the  head  of  a  wolf,  but  all  hav- 
ing headgear  of  some  kind.  The  majority  were  naked  to  the  waist.  The 
dried  flint  hides  of  several  large  animals  were  stretched  in  full  before  them. 
Each  musician  had  a  strong  stick  in  his  hand  with  which  he  struck  these 
hides  in  unison,  and  thus  marked  the  time  to  which  the  dancers  danced. 
Those  who  had  a  tom-tom  beat  it  to  the  same  measure.  The  musicians  num- 
bered from  thirty  to  forty;  and  their  chanting  and  beating  of  tom-torns  and 
flint  hides  made  a  noise  that  was  anything  but  grateful  to  the  ear.  On  the 
right  of  the  enclosure  stood  the  friends  and  admirers  of  the  dancers.  On 
this  side  a  passage  was  kept  open  all  the  time  to  permit  the  people  to  enter 
freely  and  witness  the  dance.  Through  this  channel  a  constant  stream  of 
Indians  passed  in  and  out.  They  would  enter,  watch  the  dancers  for  a  short 
time,  and  depart  without  saying  a  word. 

The  second  day  and  night  of  the  dance  was  a  duplicate  of  the  first,  only 
that  some  of  the  musicians  who  had  tired  themselves  out  were  replaced  by 
others.  After  tnree  days  and  nights  of  constant  dancing  in  the  manner  I 
have  described,  during  which  time  the  dancers  neither  ate,  drank,  slept,  nor 
smoked,  the  dancing  was  brought  to  an  end  about  mid-day  by  the  master  of 
ceremonies  directing  the  musicians  to  cease,  whereupon  the  dancers  also 
stopped. 

All  the  Indians  of  the  camp  were  now  in  the  highest  state  of  expectancy, 
for  the  dancers  were  known  to  possess  a  good  supply  of  worldly  goods,  and 
this  meant  a  bar  vest,  for  the  crowd.  Short  pieces  of  wood  were  now  laid 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 


329 


before  the  braves,  each  piece  being  marked  in  some  way  known  to  them.  A 
dancer  took  one  of  these  pieces  and  threw  it  over  the  wall  outside  of  the  en- 
closure, saying,  "Whoever  gets  this  stick  has  such  a  horse"  (naming  the 
horse) ;  seizing  another  stick  and  throwing  it  in  the  same  manner,  only  in  a 
different  direction,  he  exclaimed,  "  Whoever  gets  this  stick  has  such  a 
horse"  (naming  it).  The  throwing  of  these  sticks  continued  until  the 
dancer  had  given  away  all  the  property  belonging  to  himself  and  family. 
This  was  continued  by  the  other  dancers  until  each  one  had  given  away  his 


TOM-TOM   AND  ELK   HORN   SCRAPER. 

entire   possessions.     For  each   article  owned    by  the  dancers,  a  stick  was 
thrown  by  the  owner. 

In  this  way  they  disposed,  in  a  short  time,  of  their  accumulations  of  years. 
They  first  started  with  their  most  valuable  articles  and  continued  until  they 
finished  with  those  of  the  least  value.  The  dancer  could  not  tell  who 
would  come  into  possession  of  the  article  represented  by  the  stick,  for  each 
was  thrown  in  a  different  direction,  and  the  Indians  outside  made  a  lively 
scramble  for  them.  After  thus  disposing  of  their  property,  both  the  dancers 
and  their  families  were  left  destitute  and  almost  naked,  though  after  the 


330  TWENTY   YEARS  AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 

dance  was  over  such  of  the  Indians  who  chose  to  take  pity  on  them  presented 
them  with  some  articles  of  wearing  apparel  and  camp  equipage  to  enable 
them  to  start  in  life  again. 

After  the  dancers  had  disposed  of  their  worldly  wealth,  the  master  of  cere- 
monies stepped  into  the  enclosure  of  the  dancers  and  made  a  speech,  inviting 
other  warriors  who  had  gone  through  the  sun  dance  to  enter  the  arena,  nam- 
ing each  one  who  was  to  participate.  After  these  had  entered  the  circle, 
one  of  the  prominent  warriors  stepped  forward,  knife  in  hand,  and  seizing 
a  dancer,  thrust  the  knife  through  the  flesh  of  his  breast  to  the  bone,  making 
two  wounds,  one  where  the  knife  entered,  and  the  other  where  it  came  out. 
He  then  slit  the  breast  up  and  down  from  four  to  six  inches  in  length,  and 
two  to  three  inches  in  width.  After  both  breasts  were  slit  in  this  manner  the 
warrior  passed  the  end  of  a  lariat  rope  through  each  wound  leaving  the  rope 
trailing  on  the  ground. 

The  next  dancer  was  then  seized  by  another  one  of  the  warriors,  who  had 
been  invited  into  the  circle.  This  warrior  thrust  his  knife  through  the  back 
of  the  dancer  in  the  same  manner,  making  terrible  wounds,  through  which 
lariat  ropes  were  passed.  Each  dancer  was  treated  in  a  similar  manner, 
some  having  the  outside  of  the  thighs  slit  and  a  rough  piece  of  wood  inserted 
through  the  gashes.  One  end  of  the  lariat  ropes  which  now  dangled  from  the 
gaping  wounds  was  then  fastened  to  the  sun -pole  at  a  height  of  from  five  to 
ten  feet  from  the  ground.  Against  these  lariat  ropes  the  dancers  threw 
themselves  with  terrific  force,  in  their  efforts  to  break  away,  until  at  last 
the  ropes  tore  through  the  quivering  flesh  and  set  the  victims  free. 

It  required  repeated  efforts  of  the  dancers  to  tear  themselves  loose  from 
these  ropes.  One  dancer,  with  a  lariat  rope  in  his  back,  to  the  end  of  which 
were  fastened  several  buffalo  heads,  ran  madly  around  the  arena,  dragging 
them  after  him.  The  skin  of  the  back  rarely  ever  tore  out  when  dragging 
this  weight. 

One  of  the  most  surprising  things  revealed  at  these  dances  was  the  elastic- 
ity of  human  muscles  and  skin.  The  skin  and  muscles  of  the  back  would 
stretch  six  inches  or  more  before  the  lariat  broke  through  the  flesh. 

After  this  horrible  torture  had  been  continued  for  a  couple  of  hours,  the 
master  of  ceremonies  gave  a  signal  to  stop;  and,  after  haranguing  the  In- 
dians present  for  a  few  minutes,  the  ceremony  was  declared  at  an  end. 

During  this  trying  ordeal  of  voluntary  torture  the  dancers  never  showed 
the  slightest  sign  of  pain  or  fear,  but  laughed  a  sickly  laugh  during  the 
whole  ceremony.  They  left  the  enclosure  without  congratulations  of  any 
kind,  immediately  sought  their  families  and  friends,  and  partook  of  food 
and  drink  for  the  first  time  since  entering  the  arena. 


TWENTY   YEARS  AMONG  OUR  HOSTILE   INDIANS.  331 

The  reader  may  naturally  suppose  that  in  many  instances  these  tortured 
and  mutilated  people  succumbed  to  the  effects  of  this  terrible  ordeal.  Such, 
however,  was  not  the  case.  In  endurance  of  pain  the  Indian  was  very 
different  from  bis  civilized  brother.  After  going  through  these  cruel  rites 
the  dancers  never  complained  of  their  sufferings  or  exhibited  the  slightest 
feeling  of  discomfort,  much  less  of  pain.  Any  such  demonstration  would 
be  deemed  unworthy  of  a  man  who  had  at  so  severe  a  cost  established  his 
title  to  a  brave.  Sometimes  representatives  from  most  if  not  all  of  the  tribes 
took  part  in  these  dances,  and  when  they  returned  to  their  respective  locali- 
ties, with  lacerated  bodies  but  stout  hearts,  they  were  recognized  as  heroes 
for  a  time,  and  braves  forever.  No  further  deeds  of  daring  or  danger  could, 
in  Indian  estimation,  add  to  their  renown,  and  no  matter  what  happened  to 
the  brave  afterward,  he  was  never  alluded  to  as  lacking  in  physical  courage. 
It  was  a  great  honor  to  have  gone  through  the  sun  dance.  It  secured  for 
the  participant  many  tribal  honors  and  privileges. 

At  one  time  the  Government  endeavored  to  prevent  this  ceremony,  and  I 
believe  that  Father  De  Smet  called  the  attention  of  the  authorities  in  Washing- 
ton to  its  cruelty,  and  tried  himself  to  prevent  it,  but  both  were  unsuccessful. 

Many  people  believe  that  the  sun  dance  was  given  just  prior  to  the  de- 
parture of  a  war  party,  but  this  was  not  true;  neither  did  it  in  any  way 
resemble  a  gala  day.  It  was  a  serious  ceremony,  and  boisterous  festivities 
were  not  indulged  in  during  the  performance. 

At  sunrise  the  following  morning  many  of  the  families  had  their  effects 
packed  on  their  animals  and  travois  and  were  ready  to  return  from  whence 
they  came.  Before  the  middle  of  the  day  the  entire  country  was  covered 
with  caravans  of  the  different  tribes  going  in  every  direction,  each  returning 
to  its  own  home. 

During  the  entire  ceremony  the  vast  concourse  of  Indians  quietly  amused 
themselves  in  different  ways.  They  formed  into  groups  and  feasted  on  their 
favorite  meat,  the  dog.  The  young  men  assumed  their  most  inviting  and 
imposing  manner,  and  formed  the  acquaintance  of,  and  wooed  young  Indian 
girls  from  far-off  portions  of  their  territory.  Many  a  young  brave  secured 
for  himself,  if  not  then,  at  some  future  time,  the  hand,  if  not  the  heart,  of 
one  of  these  dusky  maidens. 

Old  women  and  young  girls  sat  in  groups  amusing  themselves  after  their 
own  fashion.  The  men  were  dressed  in  their  finest  attire,  and  showed  them- 
selves to  the  best  advantage  to  their  neighbors.  With  their  hair  greased, 
done  up  in  plaits,  combed  and  smoothed  until  it  shone  like  glass,  the  part  in 
the  middle  freshly  painted  a  bright  carmine;  their  faces  painted  in  all  the 
colors  of  the  rainbow;  their  moccasins,  leggings,  and  robes  of  the  newest 


332  TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 

and  most  elaborate  pattern  in  their  possession;  holding  their  pipes,  toma- 
hawks, or  bows  and  arrows  on  their  arms;  in  their  hands  bunches  of  sweet 
smelling  grass,  wild  flowers,  or  the  branches  of  some  odoriferous  tree,  they 
would  strut  through  the  camp  with  such  dignified  pomp  as  only  an  Indian 
can  assume,  each  one  in  his  egotism  believing  himself  to  be  the  observed  of 
all  observers,  and  the  most  important  personage  of  the  entire  assembly. 

During  the  ceremony,  no  woman,  old  or  young,  did  any  work  other  than 
cooking  and  taking  care  of  the  animals.  They  believed  that  unnecessary 
work  militated  against  the  medicine  of  the  dancers,  and,  according  to  their 
superstition,  cause  great  injury  to  those  going  through  this  ordeal.  During 
the  evening  and  night  the  scenes  all  through  the  camp  were  picturesque  and 
animated. 

1  Tb«  Indians  formed  themselves  in  groups,  dancing  and  singing  tc 
the  noise  of  their  tom-toms.  At  another  place  a  warrior  entertained  his 
hearers  with  vulgar  stories.  Elsewhere  a  brave  told  his  newly-made  acquaint- 
ances of  the  many  battles  in  which  he  had  been  engaged,  of  his  hairbreadth 
escapes,  his  skill,  and  his  wonderful  deeds  of  daring. 

In  another  spot  a  number  of  men  sat  in  a  circle  on  the  ground,  smoking 
their  long  pipes.  Here  they  remained  for  hours  smoking  in  perfect  silence, 
presenting  a  very  solemn,  not  to  say  doleful,  appearance. 

It  is  but  natural  to  suppose  that  at  these  gatherings  there  was  more  or 
less  trading  and  bartering.  Such  was  not  the  case.  They  came  solely 
to  witness  the  dance  or  to  join  in  its  rites.  Whatever  amusements  they  had 
during  this  time  were  of  a  quiet  nature.  Even  with  the  breaking  up  of  the 
camp  and  starting  of  the  different  tribes  for  their  homes,  they  did  not  engage 
in  any  traffic  whatever;  each  tribe  returned  from  whence  it  came  in  a  grave, 
dignified,  and  silent  manner. 

Catlin  states,  in  substance,  that  a  most  cruel  ceremonial  dance  was  occa- 
sionally performed  by  the  Mandans  immediately  after  undergoing  the  terri- 
ble ordeal  of  the  sun  dance.  Six  or  eight  of  them  were  led  out  of  the  dance 
lodge  with  buffalo  skulls  and  other  weights  still  hanging  from  the  freshly- 
cut  slits  in  their  flesh  and  dragging  on  the  ground.  The  dancers  were 
naked,  and  the  dance  was  performed  in  the  presence  of  the  whole  assembly. 
Rude  wreaths  made  of  willow  branches  were  held  in  the  dancers'  hands, 
connecting  them  in  a  circle.  At  a  given  signal  the  dancers  circled  around 
and  around,  yelping  as  loudly  as  their  exhausted  condition  permitted. 
Weak  from  long  fasting  and  loss  of  blood  they  were  urged  on  by  the  spec- 
tators. Those  who  fell  were  immediately  seized  by  the  wrists  and  dragged 
around  the  circle,  often  with  their  faces  in  the  dirt,  until  the  weights  hang- 
ing to  their  flesh  were  disengaged,  which  was  often  done  by  violently  tear- 


TWENTY    YEARS   AMONG  OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS.  : 


ing  the  flesh   out.     Friends  and    relatives 
fainting  victim  and  restore  him. 


stood   ready  to  minister  to  each 


NOTE. — The  last  instance  of  the  performance  of  the  sun  dance  among  the  Indians  took 
place  at  Havre,  Mont.,  June  19,  1894,  despite  the  Government's  efforts  to  prevent  it. 
This  barbarous  ceremony  was  witnessed  by  many  white  people.  All  the  newspaper  corre- 
spondents who  were  present  described  it  in  about  the  same  way.  I  give  literally  that 
published  in  the  New  York  Sun  : 

"HAVRE,  MONT.,  June  19. — The  Cree  sun  dance  has  just  been  concluded  here,  after 
being  in  progress  for  three  days.  Every  sheriff  in  the  State  had  been  instructed  to  prevent 
the  dance  at  any  hazard,  but  there  was  no  interference  here.  Three  Indians  were  hung 
up  by  thongs  thrust  into  slits  in  their  breasts,  and  slashed  by  Little  Eggs,  the  chief.  All 
fainted  before  the  ordeal  was  over. 

"  A  young  Indian  had  slits  cut  in  his  shoulders,  and  to  the  inserted  thongs  were  tied 
four  buffalo  skulls,  which  he  dragged  after  him.  Eighty  pieces  of  flesh  were  cut  from 
his  arm,  to  be  kept  as  tokens." 


A  TYPICAL  INDIAN. 


334  TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG  OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 


CHAPTER  XL. 

THE  SCALP  DANCE  AND  ITS  SIGNIFICANCE— GHASTLY  TROPHIES  OF  MASSA- 
CRE   AND    WAR— THE    WAR     DANCE     AND     ITS     OBJECT— GREWSOME 
TRINKETS  WORN. 

The  Scalp  Dance — Treatment  of  Scalps — Scalp  Poles — Description  of  the  Dance — A  Strange 
Place  to  make  Love — Courting  an  Indian  Maiden — The  Scalp  Dance  next  in  Impor- 
tance to  the  Sim  Dance — Excitement  of  the  Dancers — Telling  how  the  Scalp  was 
taken — Exhibition  of  Trophies — The  Scalp  the  Unmistakable  Evidence  of  having 
killed  an  Enemy — Indian  Braggarts — Notorious  Liars — The  War  Dance — Its  Object 
— Organizing  a  War  Party — Encouraging  the  Braves  to  Join — Praying  for  their  Safe 
Return — Feasting  on  Dogs — Prayers  of  the  Old  Women — The  Medicine  Dance — 
What  it  was  and  why  it  was  held — The  Medicine  Bag — Nations  who  used  it — Mystery 
of  the  Medicine  Bag — Disinclination  of  Indians  to  talk  about  it — Grewsome  Trikets 
Worn — The  Fire  Dance — The  Snake  Dance. 

AFTER  the  return  of  a  war  party  with  a  goodly  number  of  scalps,  the 
ghastly  trophies  were  stretched  inside  of  small  wooden  hoops  and  attached  to 
poles  eight  to  ten  feet  in  length.  At  the  appointed  time  the  Indians,  both 
men  and  women,  would  assemble  and  sit  or  stand  in  circles.  The  musicians 
sat  or  stood  by  themselves,  and  vigorously  beat  their  tom-toms  to  the  noise 
of  which  the  dancers  kept  time.  The  poles  to  which  the  scalps  were  attached 
were  held  high  in  the  air.  The  dancers  jumped  up  and  down  on  their  toes, 
moving  slightly  to  the  right  and  left,  and  keeping  together  in  a  circle,  while 
chanting  the  praise  of  the  valor  and  skill  of  the  captors  of  these  bloody  tro- 
phies of  massacre  and  war.  The  dance  was  continued  during  the  entire 
night,  and  all  present  who  cared  to  do  so  had  an  opportunity  to  join  in  it. 

Ceremonial  dancing  in  various  forms  was  a  prominent  feature  in  Indian 
life.  They  were  fond  of  amusement  of  this  kind  and  indulged  their  taste 
in  this  direction  upon  the  slightest  provocation,  and  with  a  fervor  worthy  of 
a  civilized  devotee  of  the  Terpsichorean  art. 

The  scalp  dance  was  not  a  religious  ceremony,  but  was  a  dance  of  rejoic- 
ing and  festivity  to  which  all  came  and  enjoyed  themselves  after  Indian 
fashion.  There  was  always  a  feast — generally  a  dog  feast — and  all  kinds  of 
devices  were  adopted  for  the  entertainment  of  those  present.  If  there  was 
ever  love-making  it  was  at  the  scalp  dance.  Young  women  on  these  occa- 
sions separated  themselves  a  short  distance  from  their  natural  protectors,  in 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 


335 


order  to  meet  a  young  brave.  Etiquette  required  that  they  should  remain 
standing.  The  robes  of  the  two  might  encircle  both,  and  love-making  thus 
be  carried  on,  but  always  under  the  watchful  eyes  of  the  family  of  the  girl. 

The  scalp  dance  was  regarded  by  the  Indians  as  one  of  their  greatest  fes- 
tivities.    It  afforded  the  braves  an  opportunity  to  exhibit  the  evidence  of 
their  prowess,  and  to  indulge 
to  the  fullest  extent  in  self- 
laudation.      The  excitement 
produced  among  both  dancers 
and  spectators   on  these   oc- 
casions only  fell  short  of  that 
witnessed  at  a  sun  dance.  All 
who  attended  exhausted  their 
strength    in   the  ceremonies. 
The   participators   mimicked 
the  manner  in  which  they  had 
slain   and   scalped  their  vic- 
tims, and   their   bloodthirsty 
Bavage  passions  were    again 
inflamed,    as     when   in    the 
midst     of     deadly     conflict. 
Those    who    had     taken    no 
scalps  boasted  of  the  manner 
in   which    they   intended    to 
make  up  for  their  present  mis- 
fortune in  the  next  battle,  or 
recounted  deeds  of  blood  and 
daring    in    which     they   had 
participated  on   previous   oc- 
casions.    They  related  to  the 
spectators  the  cause  of  their 
failure,    which    they   invari- 
ably attributed  to  the  malign  intervention  of  the  Bad  God.     When  a  long 
period  had  elapsed  since  they  encountered  and  scalped  their  enemies  they 
contented  themselves  with  bringing  out  old  scalps  and  re-enacting  the  scenes 
of  their  capture.     The   participators  in  a  scalp  dance   usually  prepared   a 
speech  for  the  occasion,  and  each  had  a  self- laudatory  harangue  or  his  excuse 
for  failure  at  his  tongue's  end. 

There  was  no  ceremony  preceding  or  succeeding  a  scalp  dance.     Its  object 
was  to  attest  the  bravery  of  the  warriors  who  had  performed  certain  deeds  of 


INDIAN  OF  BANK — INSIGNIA  ON  CAP. 


336  TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG  OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 

valor.  This  attestation  could  be  made  only  by  a  warrior  exhibiting  the  scalp 
he  had  taken.  The  ghastly  trophy  was,  of  course,  proof  positive  that  the 
brave  who  possessed  it  had  slain  an  enemy,  or  was  the  first  to  strike  a  pros- 
trate victim.  Should  the  scalp  be  that  of  a  white  person  it  redounded  all  the 
more  to  the  glory  of  the  slayer. 

No  one  would  believe  that  an  Indian  had  killed  his  enemy  unless  he  pro- 
duced the  scalp  of  his  victim;  this  was  one  reason  why  such  extraordinary 
pains  were  taken  to  secure  this  evidence  of  their  valor.  Sometimes  an  Indian 
might  have  been  defeated  and  driven  from  the  field,  in  that  case  he  could 
not  scalp  the  slain.  Again,  a  warrior  might  receive  a  wound,  and  be  car- 
ried off  by  his  comrades,  in  order  to  prevent  his  falling  into  the  hands  of  his 
adversaries  and  being  scalped  by  them.  In  such  cases  a  warrior  made  all 
kinds  of  representations  at  a  scalp  dance  as  to  what  he  had  accomplished 
in  such  a  battle.  But  as  Indians  are  notorious  liars,  these  stories  were 
regarded  by  all  with  a  great  deal  of  suspicion. 

Another  dance  and  one  that  was  more  frequently  indulged  in  was  the  war 
dance.  Among  all  the  different  nations  and  tribes  the  war  dance  was  com- 
mon. It  was  held  during  the  time  a  war  party  was  in  course  of  preparation, 
for  there  was  no  military  discipline  whatever  among  the  Indians,  and  war 
parties  had  to  be  made  up  of  volunteers.  The  war  dance  was  held  prior  to 
the  departure  of,  or  immediately  after  the  return  of  a  war  party.  If  held 
before,  it  might  last  from  two  days  to  two  or  three  weeks,  according  as  the 
warriors  and  braves  volunteered  to  go  on  the  warpath.  There  were  no  for- 
mal invitations  to  the  war  dances.  Both  men  and  women  congregated  at  a 
convenient  spot  in  the  camp  where  the  dance  was  to  be  held,  and  all  who 
cared  to  do  so  joined  in  the  ceremony.  This  was  continued  until  a  sufficent 
number  of  warriors  had  volunteered  to  make  a  war  party  of  the  desired  size. 
The  merrymaking  and  festivities  were  continued  during  the  afternoon  and 
the  greater  part  of  the  night.  Those  who  did  not  take  part  in  the  dance  sat 
around  in  groups  telling  stories,  or  the  warriors  described  what  they  intended 
to  do  when  they  met  in  battle.  The  men  remained  on  one  side  of  the  circle 
and  the  women  on  the  other,  each  jumping  up  and  down  by  themselves  and 
all  keeping  time  to  the  beat  of  the  tom-tom.  The  -women  were  dressed  in 
their  best  clothing,  with  a  bunch  of  sweet-smelling  grass,  or  holding  a  wild 
flower  or  the  branch  of  a  fragrant  tree  in  their  hands.  The  men  were  gaily 
adorned  but  without  robes  or  blankets.  Their  faces  were  painted  in  stripes 
of  various  colors,  and  their  bodies  were  painted  in  the  same  colors,  though 
with  much  broader  stripes.  Their  hair  was  neatly  dressed,  and  in  every  way 
they  assumed  their  most  attractive  appearance.  Both  men  and  women  held 
in  their  hands  poles  to  which  scalps  were  attached.  They  gave  voice  to 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG  OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS.  337 

howls  and  yells,  and  told  each  other  of  the  valor  of  the  braves  that  belonged 
to  their  families,  now  about  to  go  to  war,  and  of  their  ability  to  defeat  all 
whom  they  met.  Everything  was  done  to  induce  the  young  warriors  to 
join  the  party  and  conduct  themselves  as  braves  during  the  battles  they 
might  engage  in. 

During  these  dances  the  chief  or  leader  who  was  to  guide  the  party  after 
it  set  out  gave  several  feasts,  one  or  two  of  which  were  dog  feasts.  In  giv- 
ing these  feasts  the  leader  hoped  to  gain  the  good  will  and  obedience  of  his 
warriors.  When  the  war  party  was  completed  and  ready  to  start,  those 
who  remained  behind  sang  songs  to  encourage  the  departing  braves,  and 
made  prayers  to  the  Great  Spirit  for  their  safe  return.  On  these  occasions 
the  old  women  were  loud  in  their  lamentations,  not  only  for  warriors  who 
had  been  killed  in  battle  on  former  occasions,  but  also  for  those  who  might 
lose  their  lives  while  on  this  expedition. 

Among  some  nations  and  tribes  a  dance  called  the  medicine  dance  was 
indulged  in  at  irregular  intervals.  In  the  majority  of  cases  the  medicine 
dance  was  a  dance  of  superstition,  and  was  held  for  the  purpose  of  attracting 
some  imaginary  power. 

Among  the  Sioux  the  medicine  dance  did  not  differ  materially  from  the 
war  dance,  except  that  there  were  no  scalps  exhibited.  It  more  nearly  re- 
sembled a  supplication  to  the  Great  Spirit,  beseeching  him  to  grant  extraor- 
dinary powers.  At  some  of  these  dances  great  numbers  of  Indians  congre- 
gated, at  others  there  were  but  few.  Occasionally  a  brave  who  was 
ambitious  to  become  a  medicine  man  would  go  through  strange  manoeuvres 
and  violent  bodily  contortions,  making  wild  gestures  with  his  hands  and 
arms,  to  attract  the  supposed  medicine  to  him  ;  using  his  best  endeavors  to 
make  the  spectators  believe  that  he  had  been  endowed  by  the  Great  Spirit, 
the  sun,  the  moon,  or  something  else,  with  superhuman  powers.  After 
this  he  might  claim  to  be  a  medicine  man.  When  but  few  Indians  were 
present  the  dance  was  of  short  duration.  When  there  were  many  it  fre- 
quently lasted  from  one  to  two  days,  at  which  time  nearly  all  joined  in  a 
prayer  to  the  Great  Spirit  to  bestow  upon  them  some  special  favor. 

Among  other  nations  and  tribes  the  medicine  dance  was  conducted  in  other 
ways.  Among  the  Blackfeet  it  was  the  dance  of  a  few  braves  who  desired 
to  be  known  as  medicine  men.  They  congregated  at  a  certain  place  at  a 
fixed  time,  being  naked,  except  for  the  breech  cloth.  They  first  black- 
ened their  faces  and  bodies,  and  went  through  the  most  violent  contor- 
tions, gesticulating  in  the  most  absurd  manner  with  their  hands  and  arms, 
making  themselves  look  as  hideous  and  as  much  unlike  human  beings  as 
possible.  In  this  manner  they  sought  to  attract  the  medicine  to  them,  and 


338 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 


to  appear  to  those  witnessing  the  performance  as  though  they  were  receiving 
mysterious  powers  from  some  unknown  source  that  would  enable  them  to 
perform  miracles  in  keeping  away  or  curing  disease. 

At  the  medicine  dance  of  the  Comanches  a  large  number  of  them  gathered 
on  a  fixed  day  at  a  certain  place,  each  one  having  a  small  medicine  bag.  The 
dance  was  begun  in  the  afternoon,  and  was  continued  late  into  the  night. 
The  dancers  sought  to  draw  the  medicine  or  power  from  some  unknown 


INDIANS  PREPARING  FOR  THE  SCALP  DANCE. 
Reproduced  by  permission  of  the  "Illustrated  American,"  1892. 

source  to  their  medicine  bags,  which  were  carried  away  by  them  after  the 
charm  was  believed  to  have  entered. 

All  who  had  medicine  bags  danced  the  medicine  dance;  firmly  believing 
that  the  medicine  would  enter  the  bags  during  the  dance. 

Often  medicine  dances  were  continued  uninterruptedly  for  days,  or  until 
such  time  as  the  dancers  believed  the  charm  to  have  taken  effect. 

The  Cheyennes  had  no  hesitancy  in  speaking  of  the  medicine  bag  or 
exhibiting  it,  but  I  do  not  believe  they  ever  told  what  it  contained.  Some 
others  had  medicine  charms  or  totems  which  they  carried  with  them,  or  kept 
in  their  habitations,  all  firmly  believing  in  their  efficacy. 

Many  other  tribes  and  nations  had  various  medicine  totems;  some  carried 
about  their  persons  portions  of  the  bodies  of  brave  warriors  whom  they  had 
slain  in  battle.  This  often  consisted  of  bones  of  the  fingers,  toes,  or  the  ears; 
charms  of  this  nature  were  not  hidden,  but  were  worn  conspicuously.  War 
implements  taken  from  the  beaten  enemy  were  also  constantly  carried  by 
them,  as  they  believed  them  to  be  very  "good  medicine,"  bears'  claws  and 
teeth  were  also  considered  particularly  good  luck;  this  is  one  reason  why 


TWENTY    YEARS    AMONG   OUR    HOSTILE    INDIANS. 


339 


there  were  so  many  bears'  claw  and   teeth   necklaces  worn  among  all  the 
Indians  of  the  West. 

Some  few  tribes  held  fire  dances,  the  object  of  which  was  known  only  to 
themselves.  First  a  large  amount  of  dry  wood  was  placed  in  a  pile,  then 
set  on  fire,  and  when  the  heat  was  the  most  intense,  naked  men  rushed  to  the 
burning  pile,  and,  lighting  the  dry  bark  or  sticks  each  held  in  their  hands 


FIRE   DANCE. 

began  skipping  around  the  fire,  yelling  like  demons.  The  dancers  burning 
each  other's  bodies  with  their  lighted  torches;  of  ten  the  burns  left  great  scars 
on  the  bodies  of  those  so  burned.  This  dance  was  always  held  during  dark 
nights,  and  was  continued  rntil  those  going  through  this  ceremony  were 
completely  exhausted.  While  it  lasted  the  dance  was  very  exciting,  and  all 
who  witnessed,  or  engaged  in  it,  were  excited  to  wild  frenzy.  When  it  was 
over  all  disappeared  In  the  darkness;  silently  going  to  their  homes. 


340 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG  OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 


Some  of  the  Arizona  tribes  held  snake  dances.  Clad  in  peculiar  attires, 
both  men  and  women  assembled  with  the  figures  of  snakes  in  their  mouths 
and  hands,  or  coiled  about  the  neck.  They  then  shuffled  about,  each  acting 
independently,  before  entering  the  snake  dance.  The  dancers  faces  were 
smeared  with  white  clay ;  then  spots  were  rubbed  on  in  black  made  from 
charcoal  or  smut.  At  best  snake  dances  were  tame  affairs,  and  of  short 
duration.  The  only  noticeable  feature  being  the  horrible  appearance  of  the 
faces,  arms,  and  hair  of  those  dancing. 

After  the  Government  presented  "good  Indians"  with  metal  medals,  these 
were  conspiculously  worn,  usually  by  a  string  or  chain  around  the  neck, 
the  medal  hanging  over  the  chest.  For  a  long  time  the  Indians  who  were 
fortunate  enough  to  secure  one  of  these  prizes  considered  them  a  gr/eat  charm, 
and  were  never  seen  without  it. 


SNAKE  DANCERS. 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS.  341 


CHAPTER    XLI. 

ORIGIN  OF  THE  NORTH  AMERICAN  INDIANS— WHERE  DID  THEY  COME  FROM 
—INTERESTING  THEORIES— A  QUESTION  NEVER  SOLVED. 

The  Indians  of  North  America — Ingenious  Theories  of  their  Origin — Claimed  to  be  of 
Mongolian,  African,  and  Hebrew  Descent — Did  they  Descend  from  tlie  Ten  Lost 
Tribes  of  Israel? — Different  Theories — Difference  between  the  Indians  and  Hebrews, 
Chinamen,  and  Negroes — Curious  Analogies — My  Own  Opinion — Why  I  think  that 
the  Indian  was  Placed  here  by  our  Great  Creator — A  Distinct  Race — Entirely  Unlike 
any  other — Old-Man- Afraid-of-his-Horses'  Logical  Reasoning — Mountains  and  Rivers 
in  the  Moon— Did  they  cross  Over  from  Asia  by  way  of  Bering's  Straits? — The 
Mound  Builders — Implements  found  in  the  Mounds — Their  Art  in  Cutting  Precious 
Stones — Exquisite  Gold  Images  from  their  Graves — Conclusion  as  to  the  Origin  of 
the  Red  Man. 

MANY  attempts  have  been  made  to  explain  the  origin  of  the  Indians  of 
North  America,  and  no  field  of  archaeological  research  has  been  more  prolific 
in  theories.  The  fact  that  the  New  World  was  occupied  by  unknown  races 
of  men  was  a  revelation  to  the  civilized  nations  of  Europe.  When  it  was 
known  that  the  inhabitants  were  savages,  and  when  some,  in  their  native 
barbarous  costumes,  were  taken  to  Europe  and  exhibited  as  specimens  of  the 
aboriginal  people  living  here  at  that  time,  the  question  at  once  arose  as  to 
their  origin.  Much  study  and  research  has  been  given  to  this  question,  and 
the  problem  is  no  nearer  solution  than  when  America  was  first  discovered. 

Many  ingenious  and  plausible  theories  have  been  advanced  on  this  subject. 
One  is  that  the  Indians  were  descendants  of  the  Mongolian  race;  another 
that  they  were  of  African  descent;  and  a  third,  which  seems  as  plausible  as 
any,  that  they  were  the  direct  lineal  descendants  of  the  ten  lost  tribes  of 
Israel,  who  were  carried  away  captive  by  the  Assyrian  king,  as  recorded  in 
the  Old  Testament,  and  ever  after  lost  to  history. 

In  support  of  the  Chinese  theory,  the  strongest  point  argued  is  the  similar- 
ity in  complexion  and  hair  of  the  two  peoples.  Both  had  skins  of  nearly 
the  same  hue,  prominent  cheek  bones,  and  coarse  black  hair,  but  here  the 
comparison  ends.  No  similarity  can  be  traced  in  the  language,  charac- 
teristics and  customs  of  the  two  races.  The  Chinese  have  preserved,  in  writ- 
ten records,  their  national  history,  long  antedating  the  time  of  Confucius 
and  the  era  of  American  discovery.  The  Indians  had  no  written  language 


342  TWENTY   YEARS  AMONG  OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 

and  no  records;  and  it  is  absurd  to  suppose  that  if  people  from  China  had 
come  to  this  country  by  way  of  Bering  Straits,  that  separate  the  two  great 
continents,  they  would  not,  with  their  pronounced  conservative  character- 
istics, have  maintained  their  old  mode  of  life,  clung  to  their  religious  belief 
and  worship,  and  held  in  sacred  memory  their  national  traditions.  They 
would  unquestionably  have  followed  up  their  observance  of  these  things  with 
the  same  zeal  and  pertinacity  with  which  they  are  now  retained  in  the 
Chinese  Empire. 

There  is  much  less  to  be  said  in  favor  of  the  African  descent  theory.  The 
ebon  hue  of  the  native  full-blooded  African  is  too  many  shades  darker  than 
that  of  the  Indian  to  presuppose  a  possibility  of  descent  from  the  same  source. 
Besides,  I  have  never  seen  or  heard  of.  and  I  do  not  believe  any  one  else  has, 
a  full-blooded  Indian  with  kinks  in  his  hair,  that  capillary  peculiarity  so 
distinctly  African  and  so  utterly  unlike  the  long,  straight,  coarse  hair  of  the 
American  Indian.  Again,  the  Indians  almost  invariably  had  sound  teeth, 
which  the  negroes,  as  a  class,  do  not  have. 

The  theory  that  the  Indians  descended  from  the  Hebrews  is  more  plausible; 
for  it  cannot  be  denied  that  they  were  many  points  of  resemblance  between 
the  aborigines  of  America  and  the  early  Israelites.  So  marked  has  been 
this  similarity  that  it  has  arrested  the  attention  of  historians  and  ethnolo- 
gists. There  are  very  striking  analogies  between  these  races.  For  instance, 
some  Indians,  in  certain  ceremonies,  marched  under  a  rude  ensign  bearing 
the  figure  of  an  animal,  which  was  selected  as  their  distinguishing  emblem? 
and  no  two  tribes  had  the  same  symbol.  This  custom,  though  not  universal, 
might  have  been  all  that  remained  among  the  Indians  of  a  similar  custom 
that  prevailed  among  the  Hebrews,  and  was  handed  down  from  their  fore- 
fathers from  time  immemorial.  Again,  the  Indians  computed  time  the  same 
as  did  the  early  Hebrews,  reckoning  it  by  moons.  They  calculated  their 
travels  in  the  same  way,  by  days'  journeys,  and  nights'  sleeps.  These  analo- 
gies might  be  followed  out  at  great  length,  but  while  they  are  curious  they 
are  by  no  means  convincing. 

After  my  varied  experiences  among  many  nations  and  tribes  of  Indians, 
and  as  the  result  of  a  great  many  conversations  with  the  most  intelligent  men 
among  them,  and  diligent  studies  on  the  subject,  I  assert  without  fear  of 
logical  contradiction  that  the  North  American  Indian  was  placed  on  this 
continent,  in  his  original  entirety,  by  our  great  Creator,  and  that  he  is  in- 
digenous to  this  country  as  much  so  as  are  its  animals  and  trees. 

Our  great  Creator  also  provided  subsistence  for  them,  and  the  means  of 
obtaining  it.  He  covered  this  entire  country  with  the  most  nutritious 
grasses,  and  placed  on  it  large  herds  of  antelope,  elk,  deer,  bear,  mountain 


AN  ARIKAKA  INDIAN — BELT  DECORATED  WITH  BRASS  BUTTONS — BEAR 
CLAW  NECKLACE 

Twenty  Years  Among  Our  Hostile  Indi.ins 


Pae-p  343 


344  TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 

sheep,  and  millions  of  buffaloes.  For  this  reason  I  again  assert,  all  other 
theories  to  the  contrary  notwithstanding,  that  the  North  American  Indian 
was  placed  here  by  his  Maker. 

The  North  American  Indians  look  like  North  American  Indians,  and 
nothing  else.  I  have  never  seen  another  race  of  people  that  resembled  them 
in  any  way.  Their  high  cheek  bones,  prominent  noses,  narrow  heads,  broad, 
strong  jaws,  beardless  faces,  hairless  bodies,  strong  teeth,  and  erect  forms, 
are  peculiarities  of  the  North  American  Indian  alone. 

Again  there  were  more  than  three  hundred  distinct  languages  spoken 
among  the  aborigines  of  America.  Each  nation  of  Indians  not  only  had  its 
own  language,  but  many  customs  uncommon  to  any  other  people  in  the  world. 

Their  only  religion  was  the  worship  of  the  Great  Creator.  Their  theories 
of  their  origin  extended  only  a  short  time  back,  and  the  conclusions  they 
arrived  at  were  somewhat  logical.  For  example,  on  a  bright  moonlight 
night,  while  I  was  having  a  "talk  '  with  Old-Man- Afraid-of-his-Horses,  at 
which  other  Indians  were  present,  the  old  chief  turned  to  me,  and  through 
the  interpreter  said : 

"They  tell  me  there  are  mountains  and  rivers  in  the  moon."  I  replied, 
"They  say  so."  He  said:  "If  there  are  mountains  and  rivers  in  the  moon, 
there  must  be  white  men  there."  I  asked  him  why  he  came  to  this  conclu- 
sion. He  replied,  "Where  there  are  mountains  and  rivers  there  must  be 
beavers  and  otters,  and  where  there  are  beavers  and  otters  white  men  surely 
go."  He  arrived  at  this  conclusion  from  the  fact  that  for  many  j'ears  back 
the  whites  had  trapped  from  the  mouth  to  the  source  of  almost  every  stream 
in  his  country,  for  beaver,  otter,  and  other  pelts.  This,  to  my  mind,  seemed 
a  logical  conclusion. 

The  fallacy  of  the  arguments  adduced  in  favor  of  the  theory  that  the  North 
American  Indian  is  a  natural  descendant  of  the  lost  tribes  of  Israel,  or  that 
he  is  of  Mongolian  or  African  origin,  is  also  apparent  from  the  fact  that 
there  is  but  one  way  by  which  be  could  reach  the  American  continent.  This 
was  by  Bering  Straits.  If  the  Indian  followed  this  course  it  would  have 
been  impossible  for  him  to  have  reached  Ohio,  where  so  many  discoveries 
have  recently  been  made,  relating  to  the  early  mound  builders,  without  leav- 
ing unmistakable  evidences  of  his  migration  behind  him.  The  mounds  and 
ruins  scattered  from  the  Lakes  to  the  Gulf  abundantly  testify  that  this  con- 
tinent has  been  the  home  of  an  indigenous  race  from  time  immemorial.  More 
than  ten  thousand  of  these  mounds  have  been  found  in  the  State  of  Ohio 
alone.  Their  antiquity  is  evidenced  by  the  fact  that  the  largest  forest  trees 
are  found  growing  on  them.  The  Indian  races  had  no  tradition  concerning 
these  mounds.  Their  origin  is  lost  in  the  mists  of  antiquity,  and  they  stand 


TWENTY   YEARS    AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS.  345 

as  enduring  testimony  to  the  existence  of  the  red  man  on  this  continent  cen' 
turies  before  the  white  man  touched  these  shores. 

In  many  of  the  States  of  the  West  and  South,  including  Wisconsin,  Michi- 
gan, Indiana,  Tennessee,  Kentucky,  the  Carolinas,  Georgia,  Florida,  and 
Alabama,  we  also  find  relics  of  various  nations  of  Indians,  sometimes  in 
mounds,  sometimes  overturned  by  the  plow,  or  washed  to  the  surface  by 
rains.  All  these  show  that  the  Indians,  from  a  remote  period,  possessed 
the  art  of  making  articles  necessary  for  procuring  their  food  and  material  for 
their  clothing. 

In  nearly  all  of  these  mounds  are  found  pipes  of  various  designs  and 
forms,  and  wrought  of  different  materials.  The  most  of  these  are  made  of 
stone  or  clay.  It  is  highly  probable  that  other  kinds  of  material  were  also 
used ;  but  so  ancient  are  these  ruins  that  the  more  perishable  materials  have 
long  ago  crumbled  to  dust.  Some  of  the  Indians  living  on  the  coast  of  Lake 
Superior  made  pipes  of  copper  by  pounding  the  metal  into  the  desired  shape 
in  its  raw  state.  Nowhere  west  of  the  Missouri  River,  save  in  a  few  places 
in  Missouri,  have  any  mounds  been  discovered  containing  the  bones  and  im- 
plements of  the  red  man.  Nor  have  I  ever  known  of  the  discovery  of  mounds 
left  by  the  Indians  in  any  part  of  the  great  plains  of  the  West,  North  or 
South.  Nor  have  any  remains  of  the  articles  and  implements  used  by  the 
many  nations  that  once  inhabited  that  vast  territory  ever  been  brought  to  light. 
These  people,  especially  below  the  mouth  of  the  Missouri  River,  did  not 
make  use  of  the  flint  in  making  arrowheads,  stone  knives,  and  kindred 
instruments.  No  specimens  of  pottery  or  articles  of  ornamentation,  or  im- 
plements of  war  or  the  chase,  have  been  left  by  this  primitive  people  west  of 
this  great  river.  They  seem  to  have  been  different  in  a  variety  of  ways 
from  the  people  who  inhabited  the  older  States.  The  latter  lived  entirely  by 
the  chase,  have  made  no  advancement  in  the  mechanical  arts,  and  had  no 
desire  to  learn,  or  to  change  or  improve  their  condition. 

It  is  incredible  that  these  people  could  have  come  by  the  way  of  north- 
eastern Asia  and  worked  their  way  down  to  the  South  without  leaving  any 
indications  or  signs  of  their  progress.  The  mounds  of  the  Mississippi  valley, 
and  the  proficiency  attained  by  some  Indians  in  mechanical  arts,  prove 
conclusively  that  they  occupied  the  North  American  Continent  at  a  very 
remote  period.  Had  they  come  by  Bering  Straits  they  would  undoubtedly, 
on  their  way  south,  have  left  some  signs  of  their  migration. 

They  had  no  beasts  of  burden  previous  to  the  discovery  of  America  by 
Columbus,  and  their  migration  would  have  been  necessarily  slow  before  that 
time.  Besides,  the  ruins  and  remains  of  prehistoric  times  abundantly  prove 
that  this  continent  was  occupied  centuries  ago  by  a  stationary  people;  and 


PAINTE'O    WARRIOR — OSAGE. 


Page  846. 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG  OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS.  347 

that  this  people  did  in  due  course  of  time  push  south  is  evidenced  by  their 
articles  of  use  and  ornamentation.  Among  them  I  have  seen  beads  and 
even  pearls,  which  had  been  taken  from  graves  where  they  had  lain  for  cen- 
turies, with  holes  in  them  that  must  have  required  the  most  delicate  art  to 
execute. 

Some  of  their  articles  recently  found  show  the  existence  of  villages  and 
camp  life.  As  the  race  migrated  toward  the  south  they  seem  to  have  devel- 
oped a  higher  stage  of  civilization,  and  to  have  advanced  in  the  mechanical 
arts.  The  implements  and  articles  they  have  left  behind  were  better  made, 
were  more  symmetrical  in  shape,  and  of  finer  material.  I  have  seen  articles 
exhumed  from  the  graves  of  the  Aztec  Indians  wrought  in  pure  gold,  and  of 
exquisite  workmanship,  containing  from  three  to  five  hundred  dollars'  worth 
of  gold.  They  represented  various  ideas  and  were  wrought  in  different 
forms,  sometimes  taking  that  of  an  imaginary  animal.  They  were  symbolic 
of  the  dead,  with  whom  these  ornaments  were  interred,  and  perhaps  they  re- 
ferred to  some  deed  of  prowess,  or  personal  or  family  trait.  The  grotesque- 
ness  of  the  designs  in  these  trinkets  never  detracted  from  their  skillful  and 
cunning  workmanship. 

Passing  to  Mexico,  we  find  the  native  races  enjoying  a  rude  civilization  and 
skilled  in  many  of  the  mechanical  arts.  The  Aztec  Indians,  ages  before 
the  advent  of  the  Spanish  conqueror,  had  learned  the  use  of  metals  and  were 
proficient  in  extracting  gold  and  silver  from  quartz.  They  were  also  highly 
skilled  in  cutting  precious  stones,  and  in  the  art  of  ornamentation  and  decora- 
tion. We  find  to-day  specimens  of  quartz  crystal  cut  by  this  primitive 
people  of  beautiful  shapes  and  designs;  and  as  quartz  crystal  is  one  of  the 
most  refractory  minerals  known  to  science,  necessitating  great  patience  and 
skill  in  cutting  it,  it  must  have  required  ages  for  these  people  to  have  at- 
tained so  high  a  degree  of  proficiency  in  this  line  of  handiwork. 

It  is  equally  improbable  that  the  aboriginal  races  of  America  were  the 
descendants  of  persons  wafted  across  the  Atlantic  to  the  shores  of  the  West- 
ern Hemisphere.  The  time  necessary  for  their  increase  and  migration,  as 
well  as  the  diversity  of  the  native  races,  on  both  the  American  continents, 
disprove  this  theory.  The  same  reasons  show  that  it  would  have  been  im- 
possible for  the  two  American  continents  to  have  been  peopled  by  the  lost 
tribes  of  Israel  within  the  period  intervening  between  their  disappearance 
and  the  discovery  of  America  by  Columbus. 

For  every  argument  in  favor  of  the  Old-World  origin  of  the  American 
aborigine,  a  dozen  can  be  adduced  to  the  contrary.  He  was  characterized  not 
so  much  by  his  resemblance  to  other  races  or  portions  of  the  human  family, 
as  by  his  marked  difference  from  all  of  them. 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 

The  only  logical  conclusion,  therefore,  to  my  mind,  is  that  the  great 
Creator  placed  the  Indian  here,  and  surrounded  him  with  everything  neces- 
sary to  his  existence.  I  also  assert  that  the  animals  of  this  country  were 
placed  here  by  our  Creator  in  their  entirety. 

Except  on  the  theory  that  they  are  indigenous  to  the  soil,  it  is  wholly  im- 


TYPICAL  INDIAN  ENCAMPMENT. 

possible  to  explain  the  presence  not  only  of  the  buffalo,  but  of  nearly  all 
other  wild  animals  that  once  existed  on  the  American  Continent.  If  they 
were  not  here  from  the  beginning,  how  could  they  have  reached  here? 

If  it  be  argued  that  the  American  continents  were  at  some  prehistoric 
period  united  to  the  Old  World,  the  difficulty  arises  of  explaining  how  it  is 
that  many  of  the  animals  of  America  are  found  nowhere  else  on  the  globe. 
Did  they  migrate  to  this  continent  en  masse,  leaving  no  trace  behind  them? 
Neither  have  any  fossil  remains  of  many  of  these  animals  been  found  in  any 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS.  349 

other  part  of  the  world.  What  more  conclusive  proof  could  be  adduced  that 
they  are  indigenous  to  this  country?  But  even  admitting  that  they  could 
have  come  by  way  of  Bering  Straits,  how  could  they  have  subsisted  during 
their  migration  to  warmer  latitudes,  as  these  northern  wastes  were  entirely 
devoid  of  vegetation?  And  furthermore,  even  if  they  possessed  an  abun- 
dance of  food  they  must  have  perished  of  cold.  How  could  the  cloven-hoofed 
animals,  including  the  buffalo,  have  crossed  the  ice?  It  is  almost  impossible 
for  animals  of  any  kind  to  stand  on  ice,  to  say  nothing  of  making  a  long 
journey  across  its  glassy  fields.  Many  of  the  animals  of  Central  and  South- 
ern America  could  not  live  an  hour  unsheltered  and  unwarmed  in  our  north- 
ern latitudes.  The  Rocky  Mountain  grizzly  bear,  for  instance,  is  found  only 
within  a  small  area  in  the  Rocky  Mountain  region,  and  nowhere  else  in  all 
the  world.  Hundreds  of  animals  from  the  Arctic  zone  to  Terra  del  Fuego 
might  be  enumerated  that  exist  nowhere  else  on  earth,  and  of  which  no  trace 
or  remains  have  ever  been  found  save  right  here  on  this  continent,  their 
original  home. 


350 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 


CHAPTER  XLII. 

INDIAN   MASSACRES   AND   BATTLES— THRILLING    INCIDENTS    OF    FRONTIER 
LIFE— TRAGEDIES  OF  THE  MOUNTAINS  AND  PLAINS. 

Indian  Warfare — Attacking  Field  Pieces  with  Tomahawks — Burial  of  Massacred  Troops — 
Burial  of  Dead  Warriors — The  Fetterman  Massacre— Reserving  the  Last  Shot  for 
Themselves — How  Information  about  this  Bloody  Affair  was  Obtained — Firing  the 
Station  with  Burning  Arrows — Killing  a  Lurking  Foe — Blowing  the  top  of  an  In- 
dian's Head  off — Our  Battle  on  Tongue  River — A  Desperate  Charge — A  Troopers' 
Grim  Remark — A  Fierce  Indian  Battle — Two  able  Leaders — How  they  described 
other  Battles  and  Massacres. 

FROM  the  troopers'  point  of 
view,  Indian  warfare  was 
very  unsatisfactory.  First 
it  was  always  necessary  for 
troops  to  travel  long  dis- 
tances before  the  scene  of 
action  was  reached;  even 
then  the  troops  arrived  at 
the  battle  ground  in  an  ex- 
hausted condition. 

Traveling  for  days,  weeks, 
and  months,  over  dry  and 
arid  plains,  through  rugged 
mountains,  in  all  kinds  of 
weather,  constantly  changing 
water,  with  poor  and  insuffi- 
cient food,  broke  not  only  the 
health,  but  the  spirits  of  the 
soldiers.  When  the  Indians 
made  a  stand  the  troops  were 

compelled  to  fight  after  the  red  man's  tactics,  as  well  as  obey  the  orders  of 
the  officers,  which  made  it  doubly  severe  for  the  white  men. 
Therefore  Indian  warfare  was  usually  a  one-sided  battle. 
They  rarely  attacked  the  whites  until  they  felt  sure  of  defeating  them. 
They  often  hovered  about  a  camp  for  weeks,  remaining  unseen  in  the  vicinity, 


TYPICAL  INDIAN — BUCKSKIN  SHIRT. 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS.  351 

waiting  for  an  opportune  moment  to  strike.  Their  favorite  time  for  attack- 
ing was  early  in  the  morning,  just  at  break  of  day.  The  red  men  mounted 
their  animals,  riding  in  a  circle  around  the  besieged  party,  yelling  at  the 
top  of  their  voices,  flaunting  buffalo  robes,  firing  arrows  and  guns,  and  doing 
everything  possible  to  stampede  the  animals.  They  seldom,  if  ever,  exposed 
themselves  in  an  upright  position  when  mounted.  They  would  lie  on  the 
side  of  their  horses  away  from  the  party  attacked,  and  fire  over  or  under  the 
animals,  thus  using  the  latter  as  a  shield.  They  rarely,  if  ever,  took 
chances  in  killing  a  party  of  whites,  if  they  could  possibly  secure  their  ani- 
mals without  "doing  so,  unless  it  was  a  foregone  conclusion  that  they  could 
kill  the  whole  party  without  much  risk  to  themselves. 

There  have  been  many  complete  annihilations  of  troops  at  various  times  by 
the  Sioux,  notably  the  Grattan  massacre,  on  the  North  Platte. 

Lieutenant  Grattan  was  sent  from  Fort  Laramie  with  a  detachment  of 
soldiers  and  two  brass  field  howitzers,  twenty-four  pounders,  to  this  rendez- 
vous of  the  Indians,  with  instructions  to  hold  them  in  check.  Upon  their 
arrival  the  troops  were  placed  in  position,  and  the  guns  double-shotted,  but 
through  an  error  of  judgment,  or  a  mistake  of  some  kind,  one  of  the  guns 
was  fired  prematurely;  whereupon  the  Indians,  who  greatly  outnumbered 
the  troops,  made  a  rush  and  massacred  them  to  the  last  man,  with  their 
tomahawks,  knives,  lances,  and  bows  and  arrows. 

Their  fear  of  the  field  pieces  was  so  great  that  during  the  fight  they 
rushed  in,  striking  a  blow  at  the  guns  with  their  tomahawks,  and  instantly 
ran  away.  After  a  while  their  fears  were  partly  allayed,  when  they  rushed 
back,  again  attacking  the  gun  carriages  with  tomahawks,  viciously  hacking 
the  wheels  in  their  efforts  to  destroy  them.  These  field  pieces  were  at  Fort 
Laiamis  as  late  as  1866  or  1867,  and  still  bore  the  marks  of  this  attack; 
some  of  the  spokes  of  the  wheels  were  almost  cut  through,  the  brass  pieces 
themselves  bearing  the  marks  of  the  tomahawks  in  many  places. 

The  troops  killed  in  this  unfortunate  engagement  were  subsequently  buried 
on  the  battle  ground,  just  as  they  had  fallen.  They  were  interred  in  their 
uniforms,  as  soldiers  usually  are  buried  after  a  battle,  namely,  by  digging 
a  trench  or  large  hole  in  the  ground  into  which  the  bodies  were  thrown.  In 
this  instance  the  trench  or  grave  was  dug  deep  and  covered  with  large  stones 
to  prevent  wild  animals  from  preying  on  the  remains.  The  last  time  I 
passed  through  this  region,  I  visited  the  burial  place  of  these  unfortunate 
men,  and  found  it  in  a  fair  state  of  preservation.  The  locality  was  a  forbid- 
ding and  barren  stretch  of  country,  with  nothing  to  break  the  monotonous 
stillness  save  the  howling  of  wolves  at  night,  and  the  mournful  wailing  of 
the  wind. 


a- 


852 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 


The  Indians  killed  by  the  troops  in  this  fight  were  also  buried  here. 
Their  relatives  or  friends  erected  posts  from  ten  to  fifteen  feet  in  height,  and 
made  scaffolds  on  them,  upon  which  they  placed  the  dead.  Some  of  them 
were  deposited  in  the  few  trees  in  the  vicinity;  the  bodies  were  wrapped  in 
the  robes  they  had  used  during  life;  their  saddles,  lariats,  and  firearms  were 
placed  on  the  scaffolds  beside  them.  A  number  of  their  best  horses  were 
killed  under  their  resting  places.  For  years  afterward,  relatives  repaired  to 
this  spot  and  wailed  most  dismally,  although  they  had  probably  never  seen 
one  of  the  deceased  during  life. 

I  may  cite  the  massacre  of  the  Collins  party  as  an  illustration.  Lieutenant 
Caspar  W.  Collins's  command  numbered  about  eighty  men,  of  whom,  forty 

or  fifty  were  cavalry  and  the 
rest  teamsters.  They  en- 
countered a  large  Indian  war 
party  at  Platte  Bridge  and 
having  allowed  their  fire  to 
be  drawn  by  their  cunning 
foes,  were  all  massacred- 
The  Indians  captured  the 
stores  and  animals,  then 
burned  the  wagons  and 
outfit. 

Warriors  from  the  Uncpa- 
pa,Ogalala,  and  Minneconjou 
Sioux  perpetrated  this  mas- 
sacre. Fort  Caspar  stands 
near  this  place,  and  was 
named  after  the  given  name 
of  this  unfortunate  young 
officer,  because  there  was 
already  a  fort  on  Cache  La 
Poudre  River  in  Colorado 
TYPICAL,  LODGE  AND  INDIANS.  bearing  the  name  of  Fort 

Collins. 

Lieutenant  Collins  was  an  officer  of  superior  ability,  highly  educated  and 
expert  with  his  pencil,  having  made  many  drawings  of  the  Indians,  and  the 
physical  features  of  that  country.  He  was  brave  to  rashness,  but  impetuous, 
and  lacked  discretion.  He  allowed  the  wily  savages  to  out-general  him, 
and  paid  the  penalty  with  the  lives  of  himself  and  of  his  entire  command. 
When  found,  his  men  were  mutilated  beyond  description.  They  were 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS.  353 

stripped  of  their  clothing  and  the  bodies  of  all  were  penetrated  by  arrows, 
some  having  over  twenty  driven  through  them.  Some,  though  not  all,  of 
the  men  were  scalped,  and  all  would  have  been  had  not  the  Indians  been 
anxious  to  get  as  far  away  from  the  scene  as  possible,  fearing  the  approach 
of  a  body  of  troops  that  they  knew  were  in  the  vicinity.  After  setting  fire 
to  the  wagons  and  securing  all  the  animals,  the  savages  made  off  to  the 
north,  taking  their  booty  to  the  fastnesses  of  the  Rocky  Mountains.  They 
were  never  punished  for  this  outrage,  for  the  Government  at  that  time  did 
not  have  sufficient  troops  in  that  vicinity  to  pursue  and  chastise  them. 
Some  of  the  animals  of  Lieutenant  Collins's  command  were  subsequently 
captured  in  our  battle  with  the  Indians  on  the  Tongue  River,  thus  showing 
that  the  Sioux  had  afterward  been  at  war  with  the  Cheyennes  and  Arapa- 
hoes,  as  there  were  no  Sioux  at  the  battle  of  Tongue  River. 

Another  noted  massacre  was  that  which  occurred  at  Fort  Fetterman,  on 
La  Paralle  Creek,  in  December,  1866,  when  Lieutenants  Fetterman  and 
Brown  were  in  command,  in  which  about  one  hundred  persons,  and  these 
two  officers,  lost  their  lives.  I  was  credibly  informed  by  Indians  who  were 
in  that  bloody  affair,  that  Lieutenants  Fetterman  and  Brown,  seeing  that 
the  day  was  lost,  rather  than  fall  into  the  hands  of  the  Indians  and  be  tor- 
tured to  death,  grasped  each  other's  left  hands,  and  with  pistols  in  their 
right  hands  simultaneously  blew  out  each  other's  brains.  As  every  white 
person  in  this  affray  lost  his  life,  the  only  means  of  obtaining  information 
of  the  battle  was  from  the  Indians  who  participated  in  it.  I  do  not  doubt 
the  truth  of  the  story  of  the  fate  of  these  officers,  however,  for  it  was  under- 
stood by  every  soldier,  trapper,  and  mountaineer,  who  knew  the  habits  of 
the  wild  Indians,  that  he  should  save  the  last  shot  for  himself  and  take  his 
own  life  rather  than  be  captured. 

Not  so  with  the  Indian,  however.  He  fired  his  last  shot  at  the  enemy, 
then  made  a  bold  dash  with  his  lance  or  other  weapon,  standing  in  a  defiant 
attitude,  as  if  saying:  "Do  your  worst,  I  am  ready  to  die." 

Another  massacre  was  that  of  Lieutenant  John  Brown  and  his  command, 
at  Brown  Springs,  a  stream  tributary  to  the  Cheyenne  River  which  prior 
to  his  massacre  had  no  name.  Here  Lieutenant  Brown,  with  his  command, 
after  a  desperate  battle,  were  annihilated.  We  were  never  quite  able  to 
learn  who  perpetrated  this  massacre,  whether  the  Crows  or  Minneconjou 
Sioux. 

I  also  recall  the  massacre  of  an  entire  party  at  Sage  Run,  a  small  stream 
west  of  the  stage  route  crossing  at  North  Platte,  thirty- five  miles  from  the 
mouth  of  Bridger's  Pass.  Here  the  station  with  its  corral  was  attacked  by 
Indians.  After  besieging  the  party  for  nearly  a  whole  day,  without  makicg 


354  TWENTY   YEARS  AMONG  OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 

an  impression  upon  them,  the  Indians  fixed  lighted  rags  to  their  arrows, 
firing  them  into  the  station.  As  it  was  built  of  wood  it  caught  fire,  com- 
pelling the  inmates  to  leave  the  burning  building,  when  the  Indians  killed 
them  all. 

Shortly  after  this  affair  I  was  sent  to  protect  the  stage  route  at  that  place. 
Just  above  the  station  a  vicious  band  of  Sioux  attacked  us,  who  gave  me  a 
hot  time  for  several  hours.  I  received  an  arrow  in  my  knee  during  this 
battle,  inflicting  a  severe  and  permanent  injury.  A  snowstorm  coming  on 
enabled  my  command  to  withdraw,  for  which  I  was  thankful,  for  we  were 
greatly  outnumbered,  and  defeat  for  us  was  sure. 

Our  campaign  to  the  north,  along  the  Powder  River  and  into  the  Big  Horn 
Mountains,  under  General  Connor,  resulted  in  the  battle  of  Goose  Creek. 
The  troops,  numbering  some  eight  or  nine  hundred,  with  three  or  four 
pieces  of  mountain  howitzers,  traveled  a  long  distance  north  to  reach  this 
place.  Colonel  Cole,  with  his  command,  was  to  have  swept  around  from 
the  Yellowstone,  to  make  a  junction  somewhere  about  the  Rosebud  River 
with  the  troops  under  General  Connor.  The  latter  discovered  a  large  In- 
dian trail  running  up  Goose  Creek,  and  started  in  the  evening  to  follow  it. 
After  riding  the  entire  night  we  suddenly  came  to  an  Indian  village 
about  four  o'clock  in  the  morning.  It  was  situated  in  a  beautiful  bend  of 
the  river,  which  was  skirted  with  numerous  trees  and  thick  underbrush. 

We  were  compelled  to  cross  a  deep  ravine  before  we  could  get  into  the 
valley  in  which  the  village  was  located.  General  Connor  ordered  me  with 
about  two  hundred  cavalry  to  cross  this  ravine,  and  draw  up  in  front  of  the 
village.  He  crossed  the  ravine  a  little  later  with  his  troops,  bringing  them 
into  line  in  front  on  the  edge  of  this  ravine,  which  brought  them  at  right 
angles  with  my  command,  or  on  my  flank.  When  his  bugle  sounded  the 
charge,  we  dashed  into  the  village,  tired  and  exhausted  as  we  were,  dealing 
death  on  every  hand.  It  only  required  a  minute  to  start  up  the  sleeping 
warriors,  who  outnumbered  us  to  such  an  extent  that  it  was  necessary  to 
retreat  a  short  distance;  after  rallying  again,  the  general's  bugle  sounded 
the  charge  for  the  entire  command. 

We  went  into  that  village  as  I  have  never  seen  cavalry  go  before  or  since, 
and  the  fight  was  something  terrific.  For  the  first  half  or  three-quarters  of 
an  hour  we  used  one  of  our  howitzers  so  rapidly  that  it  became  heated  and 
useless.  We  drove  the  Indians  out  of  their  camp  and  across  the  river  (in 
which  many  of  them  lost  their  lives),  attacking  them  in  the  foothills  of  the 
mountains  on  the  other  side.  We  had  the  advantage  until  about  eleven 
o'clock  in  the  day,  having  them  on  the  run ;  the  troops  were  so  exhausted 
by  this  time  that  they  were  scarcely  able  to  do  anything  further,  when  we 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 


355 


began  to  retreat.  The  ground  was  covered  with  dead  and  wounded  Indians. 
A  guide  named  Autoine  Ladeau,  a  Canadian  Frenchman,  was  riding  beside 
me.  Pointing  to  a  heap  on  the  ground  that  looked  like  some  buffalo  skins,  he 
said  :  "Do  you  see  that  Indian  lying  under  his  robe,  pretending  to  be  dead?" 


INDIAN  TREE  GRAVE. 

Whereupon  Ladeau  rose  in  his  stirrups,  took  aim  with  his  carbine,  and  sent 
a  bullet  into  the  lurking  foe.  The  Indian  jumped  two  or  three  feet  from 
the  ground  after  being  shot,  and  fell  a  corpse,  one  of  the  troopers  facetiously 
remarking,  "Be  quiet  after  this,  please,"  this  caused  a  grim  smile.  Re- 
turning to  the  village,  we  set  it  on  fire,  burning  three  or  four  hundred  lodges 
and  contents,  and  capturing  six  or  seven  hundred  horses  and  mules. 

We  had  in  this  expedition  a  number  of  Omaha  Indians.     While  we  were 
on  the  march  they  were  constantly  in  front,  looking  for  signs.     When  the 


356  TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG  OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 

battle  commenced  they  charged  into  the  village,  fighting  Indian  fashion, 
showing  their  savage  instincts  by  killing  everybody  they  met,  men,  women 
and  children.  Many  of  the  Omahas  lost  their  lives  in  this  battle,  for  when 
the  Indians  emerged  from  their  lodges,  and  saw  that  we  were  accompanied 
by  red  men  they  directed  their  attack  on  the  Omahas. 

Soon  after  the  beginning  of  our  retreat,  when  both  the  Indian  and  our 
own  lines  were  wavering  and  the  ground  was  being  contested  step  by  step, 
the  troops  killed  a  warrior,  who,  falling  from  his  horse,  dropped  two  Indian 
children  he  had  been  carrying.  In  retreating,  the  Indians  left  the  children 
about  halfway  between  the  two  lines,  where  they  could  not  be  reached  by 
either  party.  After  a  few  minutes  of  severe  fighting,  they  were  both  unin- 
tentionally killed  either  by  the  troops  or  the  Indians.  It  was  a  sad  sight, 
but  one  of  the  unavoidable  incidents  of  this  kind  of  warfare. 

While  burning  this  encampment,  we  discovered  some  buffalo  skins  on  the 
banks  of  the  river  piled  up  like  cotton  bales,  over  which  lodge  covers  were 
drawn.  The  wind  blew  the  coverings  off,  exposing  the  heads  of  one  or  two 
Indians,  who,  I  supposed  were  wounded,  and  had  gone  there  to  conceal  them- 
selves. One  of  the  Omaha  Indians,  seeing  the  head  of  a  Cheyenne  just 
above  the  bales  of  hides,  knelt  down,  and  taking  deliberate  aim  with  his 
rifle,  shot  off  the  top  of  the  Cheyenne's  head ;  whereupon  out  jumped  two  or 
three  more  warriors  who  were  quickly  despatched  by  the  troops.  We  con- 
tinued to  fire  the  village  until  about  three  or  four  o'clock  in  the  afternoon, 
and  then  started  for  our  base  of  supplies,  a  distance  of  about  forty  miles,  on 
Tongue  River. 

Notwithstanding  our  desperate  attack  and  fighting  this  was  not  a  com- 
plete victory  for  us,  for  after  eleven  o'clock  we  were  on  the  retreat,  followed 
by  the  Indians,  who  fired  upon  us  during  the  entire  night.  We  arrived  at 
camp  about  seven  o'clock  the  next  morning,  more  dead  than  alive,  having  a 
number  of  captives,  whom  General  Connor  returned  to  their  people.  Never 
have  I  seen  troops  undergo  such  hardships  as  we  experienced  during  the 
forty  hours  of  this  march  and  battle. 

In  this  engagement  we  encountered  some  of  the  allied  Cheyennes,  Arapa- 
hoes,  and  others,  numbering  from  twenty-five  hundred  to  three  thousand, 
who  had  for  a  long  time  previous  been  committing  exasperating  depreda- 
tions on  emigrant  trains,  overland  freight  trains,  and  the  stage  line,  murder- 
ing travelers  and  settlers,  throughout  the  entire  country  from  the  South 
Platte  to  Bridger's  Pass,  a  distance  of  some  three  hundred  miles.  In  these 
raids,  they  had  captured  large  numbers  of  horses  and  mules,  as  well  as 
arms,  ammunition  and  general  stores. 

The  Government,  realizing  the  serious  depredations  committed  by  these 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS.  357 

miscreants,  determined  to  strike  them  a  blow  they  would  not  readily  forget, 
and  the  expeditions  under  General  Connor  and  Colonel  Cole  were  organized 
for  this  purpose.  Had  Colonel  Cole  succeeded  in  making  the  junction  where 
it  was  originally  intended,  the  result  of  the  battle  might  have  been  different. 
Unfortunately  he  lost  all  his  animals  about  seventy-five  miles  from  the  point 
of  junction,  and  came  near  losing  his  entire  command.  They  would  all 
undoubtedly  have  perished  had  not  General  Connor  come  to  their  rescue  by 
sending  them  supplies. 

The  command  when  found  presented  a  pitiable  appearance,  being  nearly 
dead  from  starvation,  hardship,  Jack  of  boots,  clothing,  and  the  necessaries 
of  life.  They  had  been  compelled  to  eat  the  putrid  flesh  of  horses  and.  mules. 
Had  the  Indians  come  upon  them  while  in  this  condition,  they  might  have 
massacred  the  entire  command. 

Probably  the  fiercest  battle  that  ever  took  place  between  the  Indians  within 
the  memory  of  white  men,  was  that  fought  between  a  war  party  of  Crows 
and  Sioux.  As  the  warriors  of  both  were  brave,  well  mounted  and 
equipped,  the  battle  was  to  the  death.  They  met  in  the  Big  Horn  Moun- 
tains, near  the  headwaters  of  Clark's  Fork  of  the  Missouri  River.  There 
was  about  an  equal  number  on  each  side.  The  Sioux  were  led  by  their  chief, 
Old-Man-Afraid-of-his-Horses,  the  Crows  by  their  noted  chief,  A-ra-poo- 
ash.  The  Sioux  warriors,  realizing  that  they  were  about  to  encounter  their 
greatest  enemy  and  most  formidable  foe,  blackened  their  faces,  which  in  the 
Indian  sign  language  was  equivalent  to  raising  the  black  flag,  announcing 
no  quarter. 

All  the  warriors  were  mounted  as  usual,  and  it  was  nothing  more  nor 
less  than  a  series  of  cavalry  charges,  fierce,  impetuous  and  deadly.  The 
horses  were  not  encumbered  by  saddles  or  bridles.  A  lariat  secured  by  two 
half  hitches  around  the  lower  jaw  of  each  horse  made  up  his  equipment. 
But  the  daring  Indian  riders  guided  their  war  steeds  with  consummate  skill, 
and  under  their  control  the  horses  made  forward  bounds  and  charges,  and 
halted  or  wheeled,  as  the  case  might  be,  with  lightning  rapidity.  The  war- 
riors were  naked  with  the  exception  of  a  breech  cloth ;  bows  and  arrows,  lances 
and  some  firearms,  which,  latter,  however,  were  very  limited,  were  their 
only  weapons. 

The  repeated  charges  were  made  with  a  terrific  yell — a  wild  whoop  on 
both  sides,  which  could  be  heard  a  long  distance.  For  a  few  moments  the 
air  was  clouded  with  whizzing  arrows,  and  the  resounding  clash  of  lances 
told  the  fierceness  of  the  fight. 

At  the  first  onslaught  of  the  battle  many  were  killed  and  wounded  on  both 
sides.  Each  side  then  withdrew  for  a  short  distance.  When  they  resumed 


358 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 


hostilities  they  fought  with  strategy,  the  hattle  lasting  all  day.  When 
night  came  on  each  side  was  willing  to  retire,  and  in  the  darkness  they 
secured  as  many  of  their  wounded  as  possible,  remaining  to  makean  observa- 
tion of  the  situation  the  following  morning.  The  loss  in  killed  and  wounded 
was  very  great,  so  much  so  that  hostilities  were  not  resumed.  Each  party 
claimed  to  their  own  people  to  have  been  victorious. 

This  is  the  substance  of  this  battle,  as  given  me  by  the  Indians  of  both 
sides;  some  of  them  when  describing  it,  gave  the  most  glowing  descriptions 
of  how  they  had  fought,  and  what  they  had  accomplshed. 

One  of  the  Indians'  methods  in  attacking  wagon  trains,  freighters,  settlers 
and  others,  was  to  surround  them;  then  by  cunning  draw  the  fire  of  the 
besieged  party.  When  the  latter  had  exhausted  their  ammunition,  rush 
upon  them  and  destroy  the  entire  party,  or  if  any  were  spared  it  was  invaria- 
bly women  and  children,  who  were  carried  away  into  captivity. 


INDIAN  WOMAN  WEAVING  BASKET— ZUNI. 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 


359 


CHAPTER    XLIII. 

THE  MASSACRE  OF  GENERAL  CANBY  BY  THE  MODOCS— CAPTAIN  JACK  AND 
SCAR-FACED  CHARLIE— INDIAN  TREACHERY— PUNISHMENT  OF  THE 
MURDERERS. 

Wars  between  the  Modoos  and  their  Neighbors — Inexperienced  Agents — Surprising  Cap- 
tain Jack's  Camp — Fight  between  the  Modocs  and  the  Troops — Massacre  of  White 
Settlers  by  the  Modocs— Avenging  the  Massacre — Thirty  Soldiers  Killed,  and  not  an 
Indian  Injured — The  Peace  Commission — General  Canby  Chosen — Sullen  and  Angry 
Indians — Schonochin — His  Hatred  of  the  Whites— Waiting  for  Revenge — Ben 
Wright's  Inhuman  Massacre  of  the  Modocs — A  Bloody  Day — Scar-faced  Charlie — 
His  Friendship  for  the  Whites — Treachery  Suspected — Danger  Ahead — The  Indians 
Indicted  for  Murder — Captain  Jack's  Retreat  to  the  Lava  Beds — A  Conference  sought 
with  him — Falling  into  a  Trap — Going  to  the  Meeting  Unarmed — Massacre  of  Gen- 
eral Canby  and  his  Party — Capture  and  Punishment  of  the  Murderers. 


THE  Modocs  occupied  the 
territory  east  of  the  Cascade 
Mountains,  and  south  of  the 
boundary  line  between  Cali- 
fornia and  Oregon.  They 
were  a  comparatively  insig- 
nificant tribe,  but  acquired 
prominence  some  years  ago 
by  their  war  with  the  Gov- 
ernment, and  the  massacre  of 
General  Canby. 

Their  country  was  about 
forty  by  sixty  miles  in  extent, 
a  most  desolate  and  sterile 
region,  covered  with  basaltic 
and  volcanic  rock.  It  con- 
tained no  large  game,  but 

berries,  edible  roots,  small  game,  wild  fowl  and  fish  were  rather 
plentiful ;  on  these  the  Modocs  subsisted.  The  country  to  the  north  was  occu- 
pied by  the  Klamath  and  Snake  Indians.  With  these  the  Modocs  were 
sometimes  at  war,  and  most  of  the  tribes,  previous  to  1865,  were  at  war  with 
the  whites.  In  that  year  a  treaty  was  made  with  the  Government  by  which 


INDIAN  IN  MOURNING. 


360  TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG  OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 

a  reservation  was  allotted  to  the  Klamaths,  Snakes,  and  Modocs.  The 
Indians  ceded  nearly  twenty  thousand  square  miles  of  territory  for  seventeen 
thousand  dollars. 

A  few  of  the  Snakes,  and  a  portion  of  the  Modocs,  accepted  this  treaty 
and  moved  to  the  reservation.  After  remaining  there  for  over  two  years 
they  found  that  the  Government  had  failed  to  keep  its  promises,  whereupon 
the  Modocs  claimed  that  they  had  not  sold  their  lands  at  all;  that  they  were 
good  lands  for  fishing  and  hunting,  and  intimated  that  they  intended  to  re- 
turn to  them.  They  claimed  that  the  parties  who  sold  these  lands  were 
unauthorized  to  do  so;  were  only  interlopers  who  were  thrust  forward  by  un- 
scrupulous and  irresponsible  parties  in  order  to  secure  possession  of  this  ter- 
ritory ;  and  having  at  length  consented  to  go  on  a  reservation  they  found 
themselves  constantly  annoyed  and  harassed  by  the  Klamaths. 

Having  complained  so  bitterly  of  the  difficulties  of  their  position, 
Agent  Knapp  ordered  them  removed  to  another  location  where  they  might 
not  be  troubled  by  the  Klamaths.  But  the  Modocs  were  opposed  to  another 
removal,  and  stampeded  without  a  sign  or  warning.  ThejT  soon  turned  up 
in  their  old  hunting  ground,  in  the  vicinity  of  Lost  River,  but  made  no  trou- 
ble, wishing  only  to  be  left  undisturbed.  Soon  afterward  Agent  Knapp, 
Superintendent  Huntingdon,  Dr.  Mackey,  and  Mr.  Applegate  had  a  parley  at 
their  camp  and  sought  to  induce  them  to  return  to  the  reservation.  After 
many  talks,  extending  over  ten  days,  the  greater  part  of  the  tribe  returned 
peaceably  to  the  reservation,  where  blankets  and  provisions  were  issued  to 
them,  the  same  as  to  other  reservation  Indians.  Here  they  remained  quiet, 
giving  no  trouble  and  manifesting  no  signs  of  discontent,  until  the  following 
spring,  when  the  agent  stopped  issuing  rations  to  them.  Pressed  by 
hunger,  they  left  the  reserve,  and  hunted  over  the  country  lying  between 
Lost  River  and  Yreka. 

Once  more  they  were  induced  to  take  a  small  reservation  of  about  six 
miles  square,  exclusively  to  themselves,  under  promise  of  remaining  at  peace 
with  the  whites.  Superintendent  Meacham,  who  always  acted  honestly  and 
for  what  he  thought  the  best  interests  of  the  Indians,  recommended  this 
policy  to  the  Government;  but  before  it  could  be  fully  and  successfully  car- 
ried out,  a  change  took  place  in  the  Oregon  superintendency,  and  a  new  and 
inexperienced  agent  undertook  to  remove  the  Modocs  to  the  Klamath  reserva- 
tion by  military  force. 

The  officer  commanding  the  troops  at  the  nearest  military  post  was  applied 
to  by  the  superintendent  to  enforce  his  order.  This  officer,  with  thirty-five 
men  set  out  to  surprise  the  Modocs.  After  a  forced  march  of  fifty -five  miles 
the  soldiers  surrounded  the  Modocs'  camp  in  the  early  morning,  and  sum- 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS.  361 

moned  them  to  surrender.  The  Indians  came  out  of  their  tepees,  and  upon 
learning  the  mission  of  the  soldiers  they  generally  agreed  to  obey  the  order, 
though  under  protest,  saying  that  they  did  not  want  to  fight  with  the  whites. 
While  this  talk  was  going  on,  one  of  the  Indians,  Scar-faced  Charlie,  made 
some  menacing  demonstrations,  whereupon  the  military  officer  in  command 
ordered  him  arrested.  A  fight  ensued  in  which  four  Indians  were  killed, 
and  some  soldiers  lost  their  lives. 

The  Modocs  made  for  the  nearest  white  settlement,  where  they  killed 
all  the  men  and  boys,  but  spared  the  women  and  young  children.  Intense 
excitement  prevailed  throughout  that  country  following  this  murderous 
raid,  and  the  settlers  demanded  that  vengeance  be  wreaked  on  the  murder- 
ers. A  military  expedition  was  sent  to  punish  the  Modocs.  At  the  first 
attack  thirty  soldiers  were  killed,  and  as  far  as  could  be  learned  not  a  single 
Indian  was  either  killed  or  wounded. 

The  Government  then  sent  three  peace  commissioners  to  settle  the  question 
by  inducing  the  Indians  to  accept  a  small  reservation  in  the  vicinity  of  Lost 
River.  General  Canby,  who  had  command  of  the  forces  at  the  time,  was 
invested  with  full  power  to  settle  the  difficulty.  He  was  a  man  of  sound 
judgment,  of  long  experience,  and  just  in  his  acts  toward  all  concerned. 
The  commissioners,  under  instructions  from  Washington,  were  to  confer  with 
him  before  taking  action  looking  to  the  final  settlement  of  the  affair. 

The  commissioners,  after  consulting  with  General  Canby,  proposed  that 
the  Indians  remove  to  Angel  Island,  in  San  Francisco  Bay,  until  a  suitable 
reservation  could  be  established  for  them  in  Arizona.  The  interview  led  to 
to  no  satisfactory  results ;  although  Captain  Jack's  speech  on  the  occasion  was 
pacific,  it  was  evident  that  the  Modocs  were  in  an  ugly  mood.  There  were 
sixty-nine  warriors  present  at  this  talk.  Schonochin,  one  of  the  leaders  of 
the  tribe,  was  especially  hostile,  and  threw  every  obstacle  he  could  in  the 
way  of  an  amicable  settlement.  His  hostility  to  the  whites  may  be  more 
readily  understood  when  we  recall  the  fact  that  he  was  the  survivor  of  one 
of  the  most  dastardly  and  cold-blooded  massacres  that  white  men  ever  per- 
petrated on  the  Indians.  Some  twenty  years  before,  Ben  Wright  and  his 
followers  massacred  in  the  most  treacherous  manner  forty-one  of  a  party  of 
forty-six  Modocs,  who,  under  the  promises  of  friendship  and  safety,  he 
managed  to  get  into  his  power.  One  of  the  five  survivors  was  Schonochin, 
then  a  youth.  He  never  forgot  the  scenes  of  that  bloody  day,  and  his  hatred 
of  the  white  man  was  ever  afterward  unquenchable.  Many  of  those  who 
were  murdered  were  members  of  Schonochin's  family,  and  he  was  deter- 
mined, if  possible,  to  avenge  their  death. 

When  the    conference    ended    Scar-faced    Charlie  asked    Commissioner 


INDIAN  WITH  CAP,  ORNAMENTED  SHIRT,  LEGGINGS 
AND  TOBACCO  POUCH. 


Twenty  Years  Among  Our  Hostile  Indians. 


Page  362 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE    INDIANS.  363 

Steele,  the  only  commissioner  present,  and  who  acted  for  the  entire  commis- 
sion, to  sleep  in  his  lodge,  as  he  anticipated  trouble.  The  commissioner  did 
so,  and  Charlie  sat  beside  him  all  night.  Were  it  not  for  this  action  the 
commissioner  would  certainly  have  been  killed.  In  the  morning  another 
council  was  held,  as  the  Indians  were  menacing  and  ugly. 

Captain  Jack  wore  a  war  bonnet,  and  Schonochin  made  a  vicious  speech. 
Captain  Jack  also  made  a  war  speech.  The  Indians  finally  declared  that  if 
they  were  allowed  to  remain  in  the  Lava  Beds  they  would  live  in  peace 
with  the  whites.  They  proposed  that  Mr.  Meacham  and  Mr.  Applegate 
should  meet  them  the  next  day  and  shake  hands  with  them,  in  ratification  of 
their  renewed  friendship.  The  Indians,  when  they  made  this  proposition, 
evidently  contemplated  treachery. 

The  local  authorities  of  Oregon  had  in  the  meantime  indicted  the  Indians 
for  murder;  and  obstacles  in  the  way  of  a  settlement  were  precipitated  by 
speculators  and  others  who  made  money  out  of  the  troubles  between  the 
Indians  and  whites. 

Commissioners  Applegate  and  Steele  resigned  in  disgust;  the  vacancies 
were  filled  by  Mr.  Roseborough  of  Yreka,  at  the  suggestion  of  General 
Canby.  Rev.  Mr.  Thomas,  Agent  Dyer,  and  General  Canby  himself  made 
up  the  new  commissioners.  Captain  Jack  had  in  the  meantime  reached  the 
Lava  Beds,  and  feeling  that  he  was  secure  would  make  no  terms  whatever. 
He  promised  to  remain  at  peace  if  left  undisturbed,  but  he  would  not  consent 
to  a  change  of  location. 

After  many  unsuccessful  attempts  to  come  to  terms,  Captain  Jack  sent 
word  that  he  and  three  or  four  others  desired  to  meet  the  commissioners  at  a 
spot  near  the  lake,  about  three-quraters  of  a  mile  from  the  camp.  Frank  Rid- 
dle, a  white  man  who  had  an  Indian  woman  for  his  wife,  informed  General 
Canby  of  the  danger  he  was  about  to  incur,  as  one  of  the  Modocs  had  told 
Riddle's  wife  that  they  intended  to  kill  General  Canby  and  the  commission- 
ers. Mr.  Meacham,  who  had  experience  of  Indian  ways  and  wiles,  was  un- 
willing to  go;  but  when  General  Canby  and  Dr.  Thomas  insisted,  he  ac- 
companied them.  The  party  went  to  the  conference  unarmed.  The  meeting 
took  place  in  an  open  space,  the  talk  for  a  time  being  peaceful  and  satis- 
factory. Mr.  Meacham  anticipated  danger  and  kept  a  close  eye  on  the  move- 
ments of  the  Indians.  After  a  time  the  latter  grew  haughty  and  insolent, 
and  finally,  at  a  signal  from  Captain  Jack,  an  attack  was  made  on  the 
party.  Captain  Jack  himself  shot  down  General  Canby.  Mr.  Meacham 
was  the  only  member  of  the  party  who  escaped,  but  he  was  badly  wounded. 

The  Indians  fled  to  the  Lava  Beds,  an  almost  inaccessible  spot.  They 
were  followed  by  the  troops,  and  compelled  to  surrender  within  a  month. 


364 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 


Captain  Jack  and  his  associates  were  tried  by  a  military  commission,  and 
were  found  guilty  of  murder.  Jack  and  three  others  were  hanged  at  Fort 
Klamath  for  their  crimes.  This  massacre  was  only  another  instance  of  the 
white  man's  injustice  and  bungling  in  dealing  with  the  Indian,  and  the 
Indian's  innate  treachery  in  dealing  with  the  white  man. 


INDIAN  WOMAN — CLOAK  DECORATED  WITH  ET,K  TEETH. 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 


365 


A 


CHAPTER  XLIV. 

A  FRONTIER  TRAGEDY— GENERAL  OUSTER'S  LAST  FIGHT— HIS  DEATH,  AND 
THE  ANNIHILATION  OF  HIS  ENTIRE  COMMAND— NARRATIVE  OF  RED 
HORSE,  A  SIOUX  CHIEF. 

Custer's  Annihilation — The  Country  alive  with  Hostile  Indians — Who  was  Sitting  Bull? — 
An  Indian  Camp  of  Ten  Thousand  Men,  Women,  and  Children — Striking  the 
Enemy — Chief  Gall — An  Able  Indian  Leader — The  Battle  of  the  Little  Big  Horn — 
Custer's  Fatal  Mistake — A  Desperate  and  Bloody  Battle — Where  was  General 
Custer? — Discovering  the  Bodies  of  the  Slain — A  Pile  of  Empty  Cartridge  Shells  be- 
side each  Corpse — Coming  to  the  Rescue — Burying  the  Dead — Appearance  of  the 
Slain — Their  Pained  and  Terrified  Expressions — Rain-in-the-Face — His  Vow  to  Cut 
Out  the  Heart  of  Captain  Thomas  Custer — Sitting  Bull  a  Great  Liar,  a  Wily  Old 
Rascal — My  Interview  with  Rain-in-the-Face — An  Indian  Account  of  the  Battle  by 
Red  Horse,  a  Sioux  Chief. 

No  frontier  tragedy  excited 
greater  horror  than  the  anni- 
hilation of  General  Custer 
and  his  command  in  the  bat- 
tle of  the  Little  Big  Horn^ 
June  25, 1876.  In  this  bloody 
battle  two  hundred  and  sixty- 
five  officers  and  soldiers  lost 
their  lives,  and  fifty-two  more 
were  wounded. 

The  causes  which  led  to 
this  battle  were  substantially 
as  follows:  A  large  number 
of  discontented  Sioux  had  re- 
fused to  be  confined  within 
a  new  reservation.  Notice 
was  accordingly  served  upon 
them  by  the  Government 
that  unless  they  moved  to  the 
reservation  before  January  1, 
1876,  they  would  be  treated 
as  hostiles.  To  this  notice 
they  paid  no  attention.  These 
wild  bands  of  Indians  were 
influenced  by  Sitting  Bull, 
an  impostor,  who  never  had 
more  than  sixty  lodges  on  wborn  he  could  depend,  and  by  Crazy  Horse, 


GALL — CHIEF    UNCPAPA    SIOUX,     AND    LEADER  OF 
BATTLE  OF  LITTLE  BIG  HORN. 


366  TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 

who  was  an  able  leader.  These  Indians  roamed  over  an  almost  unknown 
region  comprising  an  area  of  nearly  ninety  thousand  square  miles.  The 
hostile  camps  contained  eight  or  ten  separate  bands,  each  having  a  chief 
of  its  own.  No  chief  was  endowed  with  supreme  authority,  but  in  this 
emergency  Sitting  Bull  was  accepted  by  many  of  the  Indians  as  their  leader. 
From  five  hundred  to  eight  hundred  warriors  were  the  most  the  military 
authorities  thought  the  hostiles  could  muster,  but  this  proved  a  fatal  mis- 
take, as  results  subsequently  showed ;  for  when  Ouster  met  the  enemy  he 
found  nearly  ten  thousand  men,  women,  and  children,  and  probably  not  less 
than  two  thousand  five  hundred  warriors  armed  with  Winchester  rifles  and 
other  firearms,  besides  Indian  boys  who  were  armed  with  bows  and  arrows. 

The  campaign  opened  in  the  winter,  but  the  troops  were  partially  defeated, 
and  it  was  not  until  spring  that  they  resumed  the  offensive  in  three  isolated 
columns,  the  first  column  under  General  Crook,  the  second  under  General 
Terry,  including  the  entire  Seventh  United  States  Cavalry,  commanded  by 
General  Custer,  and  the  third  column  under  General  Gibbon. 

It  was  believed  by  the  authorities  that  either  one  of  these  columns  could 
defeat  the  Indians.  The  result  showed  how  utterly  mistaken  the  Govern- 
ment was  in  its  estimate  of  the  enemy's  numbers. 

The  first  result  was  that  General  Crook's  column  encountered  the  enemy 
June  17,  and  was  so  badly  defeated  that  it  was  practically  out  of  the  cam- 
paign. 

On  the  21st  of  June,  Terry,  with  Gibbon's  column  from  the  east,  which 
had  by  this  time  united  with  him,  was  on  the  south  bank  of  the  Yellow- 
stone, at  the  mouth  of  the  Rosebud.  Up  to  this  time  not  an  Indian  had  been 
seen,  nor  recent  signs  of  them.  The  troops  were  in  good  spirits,  and  the 
officers  expressed  the  belief  that  they  would  find  no  Indians,  and  all  were 
sanguine  that  they  would  return  to  their  stations  by  the  middle  of  August. 
General  Terry  therefore  returned  with  his  staff  to  the  mouth  of  the  Tongue 
River.  General  Custer,  with  the  left  wing,  proceeded  to  the  Little  Big 
Horn  River,  on  the  25th,  where  he  found  Indians  and  gave  them  battle  on 
the  following  day. 

The  Sioux  were  commanded  by  Gall,  who  was  chief  of  the  Uncpapa 
Sioux.  He  was  a  man  of  more  than  ordinary  natural  force  and  intellect. 

It  was  he  who  planned  and  directed  the  battle  of  the  Little  Big  Horn 
with  the  consummate  skill  of  an  able  and  experienced  general.  Gall  did  not 
enter  the  battle  personally,  but  remained  at  a  distance,  directing  the  move- 
ments of  the  warriors  under  their  respective  leaders,  and  the  result  proved 
his  ability  and  sagacity  as  a  commander  of  men,  as  well  as  an  Indian  tac- 
tician. On  that  day  he  had  several  able  lieutenants,  the  principal  of  whom 
were  Crazy  Horse,  Rain-in-the-Face,  and  several  others  less  notable. 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS.  367 

Rain-in-the-Face  afterward  told  me  that  the  presence  of  the  troops  had 
been  suspected  by  the  Indians  for  some  days  previous  to  the  attack,  and  after 
learning  that  Ouster  had  divided  his  command  into  two  parts,  one  being  left 
far  in  the  rear  to  guard,  care  for,  and  bring  up  the  pack-train  (this  was  com- 
posed of  four  companies  of  the  Seventh  Cavalry  under  command  of  Captain 
Benteen),  and  that  the  other  eight  companies  under  Custer  were  advancing 
rapidly  in  the  direction  of  the  village,  they  prepared  to  meet  the  troops. 
The  Indian  scouts  soon  afterward  reported  to  Gall  that  Custer  had  again 
divided  his  troops,  the  smaller  portion  going  in  the  direction  of  the  Uncpapa 
camps.  This  was  Major  Reno's  command,  consisting  of  three  companies  of 
the  Seventh  Cavalr)'.  As  he  approached  the  Indian  village  the  Indian 
skirmishers  fell  back  a  short  distance,  when  Gall  directed  a  large  number 
of  warriors  to  surround  and  attack  this  body  of  troops.  Here  a  desperate 
encounter  took  place,  the  troops  being  compelled  to  retreat  toward  the  river, 
when  another  stand  was  made,  Reno  dismounting  his  men.  Trooper  num- 
ber four  of  each  set  of  fours  remained  mounted,  leading  the  horses  of  the 
other  three,  and  in  this  way  all  the  horses  were  taken  into  the  brush.  After 
dismounting,  Reno  formed  his  troops  into  three  sides  of  a  rectangle,  keeping 
the  space  open  toward  the  river  and  the  brush  where  the  horses  were.  Ob- 
serving this,  some  of  the  Indians  crossed  the  river,  got  into  position  from 
which  they  could  shoot,  and  killed  a  number  of  the  horses.  One  of  the 
troopers  reported  the  situation  to  Major  Reno.  As  the  troops  were  vastly 
outnumbered,  and  would  have  had  no  chance  of  escaping  on  foot,  Major 
Reno  ordered  them  to  retire  to  the  horses  and  remount.  This  they  did  with 
much  difficulty,  as  during  the  retreat  they  had  to  maintain  their  lines  to 
keep  the  red  men  from  rushing  in  upon  them.  After  reaching  their  horses, 
some  remained  on  foot  fighting  until  the  others  mounted,  these  latter  then 
taking  up  the  fight  until  all  were  mounted.  Major  Reno,  seeing  that  they 
were  virtually  surrounded,  gave  orders  to  charge  to  the  ford  of  the  river, 
which  was  a  short  distance  away,  and  cross  it.  Here  took  place  a  desperate 
hand-to-hand  encounter  with  the  pursuing  savages,  Lieutenant  Mclntosh 
being  pulled  from  his  horse  and  cut  to  pieces.  While  crossing  the  river 
some  of  the  troops  were  drowned.  The  opposite  bank  was  steep,  and  the 
only  way  out  was  through  a  gap  that  afforded  passage  for  but  one  man  at  a 
time.  The  Indians,  seeing  the  helpless  position  of  the  troops,  posted  them- 
selves along  the  bank,  firing  into  them,  killing  and  wounding  many.  After 
crossing,  Reno  led  the  troops  to  the  hills  a  short  distance  away.  Here  they 
prepared  to  resist  an  attack.  Meantime,  Captain  Benteen  came  up  with  his 
command  and  pack-train,  and  joined  Reno.  Shortly  afterward  a  large 
portion  of  the  Indians  withdrew  in  the  direction  of  the  village.  This  move 


368  TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 

was  by  order  of  Gall,  and  was  for  the  purpose  of  reinforcing  the  Indians 
who  were  engaged  against  Ouster.  The  Indian  chief  also  directed  that  a 
sufficient  number  of  warriors  should  remain  to  prevent  Reno's  joining  Ous- 
ter. Reno  was  left  in  this  situation  for  two  or  three  hours,  during  which 
time  he  fortified  his  position.  After  this  large  numbers  of  Indians  returned 
and  renewed  the  attack,  fighting  the  remainder  of  the  day  and  far  into  the 
night.  On  the  following  morning  they  resumed  the  assault,  which  was  con- 
tinued until  late  in  the  evening,  when  the  Indian  scouts  reported  to  Gall  that 
a  large  body  of  troops  were  approaching.  This  was  General  Terry's  com- 
mand, and  consisted  of  infantry,  cavalry  and  artillery.  On  learning  of  the 
advance  of  this  body  of  troops,  the  Indians  immediately  broke  camp  and 
started  for  the  Canadian  frontier. 

But  where  was  General  Ouster  all  this  time?  As  not  one  of  the  troops 
that  followed  him  escaped,  it  cannot  be  known  from  a  white  source  just 
what  did  happen  to  him,  and  the  brave  soldiers  who  followed  his  lead  in  his 
last  battle.  While  the  Indians  were  engaged  with  Reno,  Ouster  must  have 
been  in  conflict  with  the  larger  body  of  warriors,  for  the  leascn  that  the 
village  was  so  near,  and  the  time  that  had  elapsed  in  the  fight  with  Reno  so 
long,  he  must  have  reached  the  Indian  camps  at  the  other  point  and  begun  his 
disastrous  battle.  When  Gall  drew  off  the  main  body  of  the  warriors  who 
had  been  fighting  Reno,  to  reinforce  those  engaged  with  Ouster,  the  latter, 
seeing  the  great  numbers  that  confronted  him,  must  have  retired  to  the  top 
of  the  hill,  where  the  battle  was  fought,  and  made  his  final  stand  there,  as 
that  was  the  method  followed,  whenever  possible,  in  resisting  the  onslaught 
of  the  enemy  in  Indian  warfare.  After  the  arrival  of  this  reinforcement 
Gall  directed  a  simultaneous  attack  to  be  made  on  both  sides  of  the  troops, 
Rain-in-the-Face  leading  the  attack  on  one  side,  and  Crazy  Horse  on  the 
other.  The  attack  of  the  Indians  was  so  fierce  and  overpowering  that  the 
troops  did  not  have  time  to  fortify  their  position,  and  the  conformation  of  the 
battle  ground  was  such,  that  there  was  no  natural  protection  of  which  they 
could  take  immediate  advantage.  There  could  have  been  little  or  no  shift- 
ing position,  and  the  troops  must  have  fought  dismounted,  as  was  evidenced 
by  the  fact  that  beside  the  body  of  each  dead  trooper  were  found  many  empty 
cartridge  shells,  thus  showing  that  the  troops  had  held  the  position  originally 
occupied  when  the  line  of  battle  was  formed.  The  position  of  the  bodies 
when  found,  showed  that  the  troops  had  maintained  their  military  precision 
until  the  last  man  fell,  and  that  they  fought  with  unyielding  determination. 

The  energy  and  skill  with  which  they  maintained  the  unequal  conflict  is 
attested  by  the  fact  that  although  outnumbered  by  at  least  ten  to  one,  they 
killed  over  one-third  more  of  thp  enemy  than  their  own  entire  number,  be- 
fore death  put  an  end  to  the  conflict. 


TWENTY    YEARS  AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS.  369 

Of  the  arrival  of  relief  for  Reno's  command,  Captain  Godfrey,  who  was  in 
the  battle,  says  :* 

"About  9:30  A.M.  a  cloud  of  dust  was  observed  several  miles  down  the 
river.  The  assembly  was  sounded,  the  horses  were  placed  in  a  protected 
situation,  and  camp-kettles  and  canteens  were  filled  with  water.  An  hour 
of  suspense  followed ;  but  from  the  slow  advance  we  concluded  that  they 
were  our  own  troops.  'But  whose  command  is  it?'  We  looked  in  vain  for 
a  gray-horse  troop.  It  could  not  be  Ouster;  it  must  then  be  Crook;  for,  if 
it  was  Terry,  Ouster  would  be  with  him.  Cheer  after  cheer  was  given  for 
Crook.  A  white  man,  Harris,  I  think,  soon  came  up  with  a  note  from  Gen- 
eral Terry,  addressed  to  General  Ouster,  dated  June  26,  stating  that  two  of 
our  Crow  scouts  had  given  information  that  our  column  had  been  whipped 
and  nearly  all  had  been  killed;  that  he  did  not  believe  their  story,  but  was 
coming  with  medical  assistance.  The  scout  said  that  he  could  not  get  to 
our  lines  the  night  before,  as  the  Indians  were  on  the  alert.  Very  soon 
after  this  Lieutenant  Bradley,  Seventh  Infantry,  came  into  our  lines,  and 
asked  where  I  was.  Greeting  most  cordially  my  old  friend,  I  immediately 
asked,  '  Where  is  Ouster?'  He  replied,  'I  don't  know,  but  I  suppose  he  was 
killed,  as  we  counted  one  hundred  and  ninety -seven  dead  bodies.  I  don't  sup- 
pose any  escaped. '  We  were  simply  dumfounded.  This  was  the  first  in- 
timation we  had  of  his  fate.  It  was  hard  to  realize;  it  did  seem  impossible. 
"General  Terry  and  staff,  and  officers  of  General  Gibbon's  column  soon 
after  approached,  and  their  coming  was  greeted  with  prolonged  hearty 
cheers.  The  grave  countenance  of  the  General  awed  the  men  to  silence. 
The  officers  assembled  to  meet  their  guests.  There  was  scarcely  a  dry  eye; 
hardly  a  word  was  spoken,  but  quivering  of  lips  and  hearty  grasping  of 
hands  gave  token  of  thankfulness  for  the  relief  and  grief  for  the  misfor- 
tune. .  .  . 

"On  the  morning  of  the  28th  we  left  our  intrenchments  to  bury  the  dead 
of  Ouster's  command.  The  morning  was  bright,  and  from  the  high  bluffs 
we  had  a  clear  view  of  Ouster's  battlefield.  We  saw  a  large  number  of 
objects  that  looked  like  white  boulders  scattered  over  the  field.  Glasses 
were  brought  into  requisition,  and  it  was  announced  that  the  objects  were 
dead  bodies.  Captain  Weir  exclaimed,  'Oh,  how  white  they  look!' 

"All  the  bodies,  except  a  few,  were  stripped  of  their  clothing.  According 
to  my  recollection  nearly  all  were  scalped  or  mutilated,  but  there  was  one 
notable  exception,  that  of  General  Ouster,  whose  face  and  expression  were 
natural;  he  had  been  shot  in  the  temple  and  in  the  left  side.  Many  faces 
had  a  pained,  almost  terrified  expression.  It  is  said  that  Rain-in-the-Face, 

*  In  The  Century. 


370  TWENTY   YEARS  AMONG  OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 

a  Sioux  warrior,  has  gloried  that  he  had  cut  out  and  had  eaten  the  heart 
and  liver  of  one  of  the  officers.  Other  bodies  were  mutilated  in  a  disgust- 
ing manner.  The  bodies  of  Dr.  Lord  and  Lieutenants  Porter,  Harrington, 
and  Sturgis  were  not  found,  at  least  not  recognized.  The  clothing  of  Por- 
ter and  Sturgis  was  found  in  the  village,  and  showed  that  they  had  been 
killed.  Wo  buried,  according  to  my  memoranda,  two  hundred  and  twelve 
bodies.  The  killed  of  the  entire  command  was  two  hundred  and  sixty-five, 
and  of  wounded  we  had  fifty-two." 

Had  not  General  Terry  arrived  just  when  he  did,  it  is  my  belief  that 
Major  Reno  and  his  command  would  have  suffered  Ouster's  fate,  and  that 
not  a  single  white  man  would  have  lived  to  tell  the  tale. 

Longfellow,  in  the  accompanying  poom  on  this  battle,  makes  it  appear 
that  Sitting  Bull  led  the  warriors,  and  that  Rain-in-the-Face  killed  General 
Ouster.  As  already  stated,  Sitting  Bull  was  not  present  at  all,  and  it  was 
Captain  Thomas  W.  Ouster — General  Ouster's  brother — whose  heart  Rain- 
in-the-Face  is  supposed  to  have  cut  out. 

THE  REVENGE  OF  RAIN-IN-THE-FACE. 

In  that  desolate  laud  and  lone, 
Where  the  Big  Horn  and  Yellowstone 

Roar  down  their  mountain  path, 
By  their  fires  the  Sioux  Chiefs 
Muttered  their  woes  and  griefs 

And  the  menace  of  their  wrath. 

"  Revenge  !"  cried  Rain-in-the-Face, 
"  Revenge  upon  all  the  race 

Of  the  White  Chief  with  yellow  hair  ! " 
And  the  mountains  dark  and  high 
From  their  crags  re-echoed  the  cry, 
Of  his  anger  and  despair. 

In  the  meadow,  spreading  wide 
By  woodland  and  riverside 

The  Indian  village  stood : 
All  was  silent  as  a  dream, 
Save  the  rushing  of  the  stream 

And  the  blue- jay  in  the  wood. 

In  his  war  paint  and  his  beads, 
Like  a  bison  among  the  reeds, 

In  ambush  the  Sitting  Bull 
Lay  with  three  thousand  braves 
Crouched  in  the  clefts  and  caves, 

Savage,  unmerciful! 


TWENTY  YEARS  AMONG  OUR  HOSTILE   INDIANS.  371 

Into  the  fatal  snare 

The  White  Chief  with  yellow  hair 

And  his  three  hundred  men 
Dashed  headlong,  sword  in  hand  ; 
But  of  that  gallant  band 

Not  one  returned  again. 

The  sudden  darkness  of  death 
Overwhelmed  them  like  the  breath 

And  smoke  of  a  furnace  tire  : 
By  the  river's  bank,  and  between 
The  rocks  of  the  ravine 

They  lay  in  their  bloody  attire. 

But  the  foeman  fled  in  the  night, 
And  Rain-in-the-Face,  in  his  flight, 

Uplifted  high  in  air 
As  a  ghastly  trophy,  bore 
The  brave  heart,  that  beat  no  more, 

Of  the  White  Chief  with  yellow  hair. 

Whose  was  the  right  and  the  wrong  ? 
Sing  it,  O  funeral  song, 

With  a  voice  that  is  full  of  tears, 
And  say  that  our  broken  faith 
Wrought  all  this  ruin  and  scathe, 

In  the  Year  of  a  Hundred  Years. 

—  Longfellow. 

Rain-in-the-Face  presented  me  with  his  photograph,  and  a  printed  copy  of 
the  foregoing,  at  the  bottom  of  which  he  also  wrote  his  name.  He  had  a 
good  supply  of  printed  copies  of  this  poem.  It  must  not  be  inferred  from  the 
fact  that  Rain-in-the-Face  wrote  his  name  that  he  was  an  educated  Indian. 
He  had  simply  been  taught  to  write  his  name  mechanically,  and  that  was 
all  he  could  write.  It  was  curious  to  note  the  surprising  uniformity  in  his 
signatures,  and  the  ease  with  which  he  wrote  them.  An  expert  in  calig- 
raphy  could  not  detect  the  slightest  difference  in  the  crude  formation  of  the 
letters.  Here  is  a  facsimile  of  his  autograph  written  in  my  presence  : 


The  reader  may  notice  that  the  "i"  in  Rain  is  rounded,  like  half  of  the 
letter  "n."  This  peculiarity  was  always  present.  He  seemed  to  take  a 
pride  in  writing  his  name,  and  repeated  the  operation  over  and  over  again 
without  being  asked.  When  I  told  him  the  name  by  which  I  was  known 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 


among  the  Sioux,  be  uttered  a  grunt  of  recognition.  I  gave  him  a  few 
trifling  presents,  such  as  I  knew  took  the  Indians'  fancy,  and  then  asked 
him  to  answer  a  few  questions,  which  were  substantially  as  follows:  First? 
I  asked  him  who  Sitting  Bull  was,  as  I  had  never  heard  him  prominently 
mentioned  previous  to  the  battle  of  the  Little  Big  Horn.  He  replied  that 
Sitting  Bull  was  not  a  chief  or  a  leader  in  any  sense,  and  was  not  present 
at  the  battle;  that  he  was  a  long  distance  from  the  conflict,  and  that  he  had 

gained  notorietj7  among  some 
white  people  by  pretending  to  be 
the  chief  of  the  Sioux  tribes 
then  in  hostility. 

Sitting  Bull  was  not  an  able 
Indian,  as  compared  with  some 
of  the  great  Sioux  chiefs,  but 
being  an  impressive  talker,  a 
clever  charlatan,  and  a  great 
liar,  he  achieved  influence 
among  a  small  portion  of  his 
people  for  a  short  time  during 
an  emergency. 

I  asked  Kain-in-the-Face  if 
it  were  true  that  he  had  cut  the 
heart  out  of  General  Ouster 
"the  white  chief  with  yellow 
hair."  He  answered,  "No!" 
but  said  that  some  time  previous 
to  the  battle,  Captain  Tom 
Ouster  (the  General's  brother) 
had  put  him  in  the  guard-house 
at  Fort  Abraham  Lincoln,  and  treated  him  very  harshly,  and  that  he  had 
at  that  time  told  some  of  the  whites  at  the  Fort  that  he  would  cut  the  heart 
out  of  him,  if  the  opportunity  ever  presented  itself.  I  then  asked  him  if 
he  bad  cut  out  the  Captain's  heart.  To  this  question  he  made  no  response, 
but  grew  sullen  and  morose,  refusing  to  answer  any  more  questions  for  a 
time.  Some  of  the  white  persons  present  who  knew  Indian  character  well, 
and  spoke  the  Sioux  language  fluently,  and  had  been  much  with  Rain-in- 
the-Face,  and  with  other  Indian  participators  in  the  fight,  told  me  that 
Rain-in-the-Face  had  accomplished  his  horrible  threat,  and  had  literally 
cut  out  Tom  Ouster's  heart  while  he  was  yet  alive.  When  the  body  was 
found,  Captain  Ouster's  heart  had  actually  been  cut  out,  but  as  no  white 


RAIN  IN-THE  FACE. 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 


373 


man  who  entered  the  battle  lived  to  tell  of  the  terrible  tragedy,  we  are  com- 
pelled to  take  the  fragmentary  accounts  of  it,  as  told  by  the  Indians,  for 
what  such  stories  are  worth.  It  has  even  been  said  that  Rain-in-the-Face, 
in  his  ferocity  and  thirst  for  vengeance,  ate  the  heart,  after  tearing  it  from 
his  victim's  breast. 

Never  did  the  American  trooper  give  a  grander  exhibition  of  his  courage 
and  fidelity  than  in  the  fatal  battle  of  the  Little  Big  Horn,  when  every  man 
that  followed  Ouster,  from  the  General  himself  to  the  private  soldier,  went 
down  fighting  to  the  last.  There  were  no  wounded,  no  prisoners,  no  missing 
— all  were  killed. 

The  battle  was  in  no  wise  an  ambush,  as  has  been  erroneously  stated;  it 
was  a  fight  in  which  the  pursuers  were  attacked   by  the  pursued    with  the 
usual  result  in  Indian   warfare,  in  which  the  troops  were  almost  invariably 
outnumbered  and  defeated. 
Had    not   General    Ouster 
in    an    ill-judged  moment 
divided  his  command,  the 
result    might     have    been 
different.     That    he   erred 
in  this  regard,  no  one  who 
knows     the     character    of 
Indian      warfare      doubts. 
Nor    did  this   battle  differ 


markedly  from  many  other 
miscalled  massacres  in  the 
history  of  our  Indian 
wars,  except  by  reason  of 
the  numbers  engaged  on 
both  sides,  and  the  fame 
General  Ouster  had 
achieved. 

One  fact  seems  plain, 
namely,  that  Ouster's 
scouts  and  guides  in  this 

campaign  were  of  an  inferior  kind,  as  they  did  not  keep  the  General  advised 
of  the  presence  or  numbers  of  the  enemy,  and  the  dangers  of  the  country  in 
which  he  was  operating.  I  cannot  believe  tbat  a  man  of  General  Ouster's 
military  acumen  and  experience  in  Indian  warfare  would  have  divided  his 
command  if  kept  properly  informed  of  his  surroundings.  So  large  a  body  of 
Indians  as  were  in  the  vicinity,  counting  not  less  than  two  thousand  lodges 


SITTING   BULL — SIOUX. 


374  TWENTY   YEARS  AMONG  OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 

and  probably  not  less  than  ten  or  twelve  thousand  souls,  must  have  scoured 
the  country  for  miles  around  in  search  of  food  for  themselves  and  forage  for 
their  animals,  and  left  signs  everywhere  of  their  presence  and  numbers  that 
even  an  ordinary  guide  should  have  seen.  If  Custer  had  had  a  Jim  Bridger 
or  a  Jim  Baker  to  guide  his  command,  he  never  would  have  been  trapped. 

Although  this  was  a  great  victory  for  the  Indians,  they  won  it  at  a  terri- 
ble cost;  for  in  addition  to  the  large  number  of  slain  they  left  on  the  field, 
there  must  have  been  also  a  large  number  of  wounded,  many  of  them  mor- 


SITTTNG-BULL'S  CABIN,  AND  THE  PLACE  OF  HIS  DEATH. 

This  cabin  was  built  by  the  Government  for  Sitting  Bull  and  his  family.     While  resisting  arrest  he  was 
killed  in  it  by  Bull-Head,  an  Indian  Policeman. 

tally,  for  their  dead  were  strewn  all  along  the  route  to  the  Canadian  frontier. 
The  Indians  admit  that  they  suffered  terribly.  Not  a  tepee,  not  a  family, 
but  had  to  lament  its  slain  or  wounded.  Even  Rain-in-the-Face,  when  I 
last  saw  him,  was  a  living  illustration  that  his  people  had  paid  dearly  for 
their  victory.  As  the  result  of  his  wounds,  one  of  his  legs  was  stiff,  and 
drawn  up  close  to  his  body  so  that  he  could  only  move  about  on  crutches 
and  with  much  difficulty. 

Dr.  Charles  E.  McChesney,  acting  assistant  surgeon  United  States  Army, 
communicated  to  the  Bureau  of  Ethnology  at  Washington  a  unique  Indian 
account,  both  in  carefully  noted  gesture  signs  and  in  pictographs,  of  the 
battle  of  the  Little  Big  Horn.  These  drawings  were  made,  and  the  account 
which  accompanied  them  was  given  by  Red  Horse,  a  Sioux  chief,  and  a 
prominent  actor  in  the  battle.  His  narrative,  closely  translated  into  simple 
English,  is  herewith  given.  The  drawings  were  made  on  rough  manila 
paper,  some  of  them  with  colored  pencils.  Some  of  these  drawings  are  pre- 


TWENTY   YEARS  AMONG  OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS  375 

sented  in  this  volume,  not  only  as  specimens  of  Indian  art,  but  as  a  contribu- 
tion from  the  Indian  standpoint  to  our  knowledge  of  Ouster's  last  fight. 
Here  is  the  story  of  Red  Horse : 

"Five  springs  ago,  I,  with  many  Sioux  Indians,  took  down  and  packed  up 
our  tipis  [tepees]  and  moved  from  Cheyenne  River  to  the  Rosebud  River, 
where  we  camped  a  few  days;  then  took  down  and  packed  up  our  lodges 
and  moved  to  the  Little  Big  Horn  River  and  pitched  our  lodges  with  the 
large  camp  of  Sioux. 

"The  Sioux  were  camped  on  the  Little  Big  Horn  River  as  follows:  The 
lodges  of  the  Uncpapas  were  pitched  highest  up  the  river  under  a  bluff. 
The  Santee  lodges  were  pitched  next.  The  Ogalalas'  lodges  were  pitched 
next.  The  Brule  lodges  were  pitched  next.  The  Minneconjoux  lodges  were 
pitched  next.  The  Sans'- Arcs'  lodges  were  pitched  next.  The  Blackfeet 
lodges  were  pitched  next.  The  Cheyenne  lodges  were  pitched  next.  A  few 
Arikara  Indians  were  among  the  Sioux  [being  without  lodges  of  their  own]. 
Two-Kettles  [a  tribe  of  Sioux],  among  the  other  Sioux  [without  lodges]. 

"I  was  a  Sioux  chief  in  the  council  lodge.  My  lodge  was  pitched  in  the 
center  of  the  camp.  The  day  of  the  attack  I  and  four  women  were  a  short 
distance  from  the  camp  digging  wild  turnips.  Suddenly  one  of  the  women 
attracted  my  attention  to  a  cloud  of  dust  rising  a  short  distance  from  camp. 
I  soon  saw  that  the  soldiers  were  charging  the  camp.  To  the  camp  I  and 
the  women  ran.  When  I  arrived  a  person  told  me  to  hurry  to  the  council 
lodge.  The  soldiers  charged  so  quickly  we  could  not  talk  [council].  We 
came  out  of  the  council  lodge  and  talked  in  all  directions.  The  Sioux 
mount  horses,  take  guns,  and  go  fight  the  soldiers.  Women  and  children 
mount  horses  and  go  [meaning  to  get  out  of  the  way]. 

"Among  the  soldiers  was  an  officer  who  rode  a  horse  with  four  white  feet. 
The  Sioux  have  for  a  long  time  fought  many  brave  men  of  different  people, 
but  the  Sioux  say  this  officer  was  the  bravest  man  they  had  ever  fought.  I 
don't  know  whether  this  was  General  Custer  or  not.  Many  of  the  Sioux  men 
that  I  hear  talking  tell  me  it  was.  I  saw  this  officer  in  the  fight  many 
times,  but  did  not  see  his  body.  It  has  been  told  me  that  he  was  killed  by 
a  Santee  Indian,  who  took  his  horse.  This  officer  wore  a  large-brimmed  hat 
and  a  deerskin  coat.  This  officer  saved  the  lives  of  many  soldiers  by  turning 
his  horse  and  covering  the  retreat.  Sioux  say  this  officer  was  the  bravest 
man  they  ever  fought.  I  saw  two  officers  looking  alike,  both  having  long 
yellowish  hair. 

"Before  the  attack  the  Sioux  were  camped  on  the  Rosebud  River.  Sioux 
moved  down  a  river  running  into  the  Little  Big  Horn  River,  crossed  the 
Little  Big  Horn  River,  and  camped  on  its  west  bank. 


376  TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 

"This  day  [day  of  attack]  a  Sioux  man  started  to  go  to  Red  Cloud 
agency,  but  when  he  had  gone  a  short  distance  from  camp,  he  saw  a  cloud 
of  dust  rising  and  turned  back  and  said  he  thought  a  herd  of  buffalo  was 
coming  near  the  village. 

"The  day  was  hot.  In  a  short  time  the  soldiers  charged  the  camp.  [This 
was  Major  Reno's  battalion  of  the  Seventh  Cavalry.]  The  soldiers  came  on 
the  trail  made  by  the  Sioux  camp  in  moving,  and  crossed  the  Little  Big 
Horn  River  above  where  the  Sioux  crossed,  and  attacked  the  lodges  of  the 
Uncpapas,  farthest  up  the  river.  The  women  and  children  ran  down  the 
Little  .big  Horn  River  a  short  distance  into  a  ravine.  The  soldiers  set  fire 


BATTLE  OF  LITTLE  BIG  HORN— SIOUX  LEAVING  BATTLE  GROUND — DRAWN  BY  RED  HORSE — 

SIOUX. 

to  the  lodges.  All  the  Sioux  now  charged  the  soldiers  and  drove  them  in 
confusion  across  the  Little  Big  Horn  River,  which  was  very  rapid,  and 
several  soldiers  were  drowned  in  it.  On  a  hill  the  soldiers  stopped  and  the 
Sioux  surrounded  them.  A  Sioux  man  came  and  said  that  a  different  party 
of  soldiers  had  all  the  women  and  children  prisoners.  Like  a  whirlwind 
the  word  went  around,  and  the  Sioux  all  heard  it  and  left  the  soldiers  on  the 
hill  and  went  quickly  to  save  the  women  and  children. 


TWENTY   YEARS  AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS.  37? 

"From  the  hill  that  the  soldiers  were  on  to  the  place  where  the  different 
soldiers  [by  this  terra  Red  Horse  always  means  the  battalion  immediately 
commanded  by  General  Ouster,  his  mode  of  distinction  being  that  they  were 
a  different  body  from  that  first  encountered]  were  seen  was  level  ground 
with  the  exception  of  a  creek.  Sioux  thought  the  soldiers  on  the  hill  [i.e., 
Reno's  battalion]  would  charge  them  in  rear,  but  when  they  did  not  the 
Sioux  thought  the  soldiers  on  the  hill  were  out  of  cartridges.  As  soon  as 
we  had  killed  all  the  different  soldiers  the  Sioux  all  went  back  to  kill  the 
soldiers  on  the  hill.  All  the  Sioux  watched  around  the  hill  until  a  Sioux 
man  came  and  said  many  walking  soldiers  were  coming  near.  The  coming 
of  the  walking  soldiers  was  the  saving  of  the  soldiers  on  the  hill.  Sioux 
cannot  fight  the  walking  soldiers  [infantry]  being  afraid  of  them,  so  the 
Sioux  left. 

"The  soldiers  charged  the  Sioux  camp  about  noon.  The  soldiers  were 
divided,  one  party  charging  right  into  the  camp.  After  driving  these 
soldiers  across  the  river,  the  Sioux  charged  the  different  soldiers  [i.e.,  Ous- 
ter's] below,  and  drove  them  in  confusion;  these  soldiers  became  foolish, 
many  throwing  away  their  guns  and  raising  their  hands,  saying,  'Sioux, 
pity  us;  take  us  prisoners,'  The  Sioux  did  not  take  a  single  soldier  pris- 
oner, but  killed  all  of  them;  none  were  left  alive  for  even  a  few  minutes. 
These  different  soldiers  discharged  their  guns  but  little.  I  took  a  gun  and 
two  belts  off  two  dead  soldiers;  out  of  one  belt  two  cartridges  were  gone, 
out  of  the  other  five. 

"The  Sioux  took  the  guns  and  cartridges  off  the  dead  soldiers  and  went  to 
the  hill  on  which  the  soldiers  were,  surrounded  and  fought  them  with  the 
guns  and  cartridges  of  the  dead  soldiers.  Had  the  soldiers  not  divided  I 
think  they  would  have  killed  many  Sioux.  The  different  soldiers  [i.e., 
Ouster's  battalion]  that  the  Sioux  killed  made  five  brave  stands.  Once  the 
Sioux  charged  right  in  the  midst  of  the  different  soldiers  and  scattered  them 
all,  fighting  among  the  soldiers  hand  to  hand, 

"One  band  of  soldiers  was  in  the  rear  of  the  Sioux.  When  this  band  of 
soldiers  charged,  the  Sioux  fell  back,  and  the  Sioux  and  the  soldiers  stood 
facing  each  other.  Then  all  the  Sioux  became  brave  and  charged  the 
soldiers.  The  Sioux  went  but  a  short  distance  before  they  separated  and  sur- 
rounded the  soldiers.  I  could  see  the  officers  riding  in  front  of  the  soldiers 
and  hear  them  shouting.  Now  the  Sioux  had  many  killed.  The  soldiers 
killed  one  hundred  and  thirty  six  and  wounded  one  hundred  and  sixty  Sioux. 
The  Sioux  killed  all  these  different  soldiers  in  the  ravine. 

"The  soldiers  charged  the  Sioux  camp  farthest  upthe  river.  A  short  time 
after  the  different  soldiers  charged  the  village  below.  While  the  different 


DEAD  SIOUX— DRAWN  BY  RED-HORSE  SIOUX  CHIEF, 


Twenty  Years  Among  Our  Hostile  Indians. 


Page  378 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE    INDIANS.  379 

soldiers  and  Sioux  were  fighting  together  the  Sioux  chief  said,  'Sioux  men, 
go  watch  the  soldiers  on  the  hill  and  prevent  their  joining  the  different 
soldiers.'  The  Sioux  men  took  the  clothing  off  the  dead  and  dressed  them- 
selves in  it.  Among  the  soldiers  were  white  men  who  were  not  soldiers. 
The  Sioux  dressed  in  the  soldiers'  and  white  men's  clothing  fought  the 
soldiers  on  the  hill. 

"The  banks  of  the  Little  Big  Horn  River  were  high,  and  the  Sioux  killed 
many  of  the  soldiers  while  crossing.  The  soldiers  on  the  hill  dug  up  the 
ground  [i.e.,  made  earthworks],  and  the  soldiers  and  Sioux  fought  at  long 
range,  sometimes  the  Sioux  charging  close  up.  The  fight  continued  at  long 
range  until  a  Sioux  man  saw  the  walking  soldiers  coming.  When  the  walk- 
ing soldiers  came  near  the  Sioux  became  afraid  and  ran  away." 


380 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG  OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 


CHAPTER  XLV. 

THE    GREAT    SIOUX    MASSACRE— MIRACULOUS    ESCAPES    AND    THRILLING 
ADVENTURES— SUFFERINGS  OF  CAPTIVES. 

Cause  of  the  Massacre — War  of  Extermination  decided  upon  by  the  Indians— They  take 
the  Warpath — Their  First  Attack — Courage  of  a  French  Ferryman — His  Heroic  Death 
—Killing  of  Fleeing  Settlers — Hacked  to  Pieces  with  Knives — Children's  Brains 
Beaten  Out — Burned  Alive — Hung  on  Hooks — Sticks  Driven  through  their  Bodies — 
Mutilation  of  the  Dead — Roasting  a  Child  Alive — Thrilling  Escapes — Two  Brothers 
trying  to  Save  a  Sick  Mother — The  Settlers  Rally  for  Defense — Holding  White  Pris- 
oners— Their  Extreme  Suffering — Miraculous  Escape  of  Two  Brothers — Six  Hundred 
and  Forty-four  Settlers  and  Ninety -three  Soldiers  Slain. 

DUKING  the  summer  of  1863, 
while  our  country  was  strain- 
ing every  energy  in  suppres- 
sing the  war  of  the  Rebellion, 
there  occurred  in  northern 
Minnesota  the  bloodiest  Indian 
massacre  in  the  history  of  the 
North  American  Continent. 

The  Civil  War  at  that  time 
absorbed  the  attention  of  the 
people  to  the  exclusion  of 
almost  every  other  subject,  and 
the  great  Sioux  massacre  did 
not  make  such  an  impression 
on  the  public  as  it  would  had 
it  happened  at  any  other  time. 
This  massacre  was  distin- 
guished, too,  by  its  suddenness, 
its  extent,  its  dreadful  results, 
and  the  fact  that  it  occurred 
almost  within  the  limits  of 
civilization. 

A  part  of  the  Sioux  had  manifested  a  tendency  to  submit  to  the  transform- 
ng  influences  of  civilization.     Churches  and  schools  had  been  established  in 


WARRIOR,  WITH  GOVERNMENT  MEDAL. 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS.  381 

some  parts  of  their  territory  in  Minnesota,  and  it  looked  as  if  this  portion  of 
the  Sioux  and  their  white  neighbors  would  live  thenceforth  in  peace. 

A  short  time  before,  they  had  sold  a  large  and  valuable  portion  of  their 
lands  to  the  Government.  They  were  to  receive  annuities,  food,  and  neces- 
sary articles  for  their  new  mode  of  life,  in  payment  for  these  lands.  The 
Government  kept  faith  with  them  in  every  respect;  but  the  old  story  of  rob- 
bery of  the  Indians  by  government  agents,  traders,  and  adventurers  was 
repeated. 

In  this  instance  particularly,  the  robbery  of  the  Indians  was  flagrant  in 
the  extreme.  They  were  swindled  on  some  occasions  of  every  penny  that 
was  coming  to  them.  In  their  ignorance  they  did  not  know  how  to  seek 
redress ;  and  starving  men  cannot  afford  to  look  for  relief  in  a  protracted  or 
roundabout  way. 

They  could  no  longer  live  by  the  chase,  as  civilization  had  driven  the  ani- 
mals on  which  they  subsisted  far  beyond  their  hunting  grounds,  and  the 
money  and  rations  the  Government  furnished  them,  for  the  most  part, 
never  reached  their  hands.  Finally  they  were  reduced  to  the  necessity  of 
living  on  their  horses  and  dogs. 

There  were  other  causes  which  created  dissatisfaction  among  the  Sioux. 
Knowing  that  the  whites  were  engaged  in  a  war  among  themselves,  wild 
stories  were  circulated  among  them  about  it.  It  was  rumored  that  the 
armies  of  the  Government  had  been  destroyed;  that  Washington  had  been 
captured  and  the  Great  White  Father  taken  prisoner.  It  was  therefore 
natural  for  the  Indians  to  suppose  that  they  could  regain  their  hunting 
ground  by  taking  to  the  warpath  and  exterminating  the  whites. 

Although  the  Indians  had  been  in  a  sullen  and  discontented  mood  for 
some  time,  and  rumors  of  danger  had  been  afloat,  the  settlers  believed  them- 
selves secure  and  took  no  precautions. 

The  outbreak  occurred  in  a  simple  and  unforeseen  manner.  A  party  of 
twenty  young  bucks  started  up  the  country  a  distance  of  some  eighty  miles 
to  hunt.  On  their  way  a  dispute  arose  among  themselves,  when  some 
charged  others  with  being  afraid  of  the  whites.  To  show  that  the  imputa- 
tion was  undeserved,  a  few  of  the  braves  left  the  party  and  proceeded  to 
kill  several  white  settlers.  The  Sioux  were  asked  to  surrender  the  mur- 
derers. A  great  council  of  war  was  held,  and  the  matter  was  debated  at 
length.  As  the  talk  grew  warm,  Indian  passions  were  aroused,  and  it  was 
then  and  there  determined  to  wage  a  war  of  extermination  on  the  frontier 
settlers. 

A  number  of  braves,  painted  and  accoutred  for  the  warpath,  proceeded  to 
the  dwelling  of  Little  Crow,  a  semi-civilized  chieftain,  who  spoke  English, 


382  TWENTY   YEARS  AMONG  OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 

had  been  to  Washington,  knew  the    power  of  the  whites,  and   was  noted 
among  his  people  for  his  eloquence  and  sound  judgment. 

Little  Crow,  was  surprised  at  the  turn  affairs  had  taken,  sought  at 
first  to  dissuade  the  warriors  from  their  purpose;  but  seeing  that  they  were 
maddened  and  determined,  and  that  refusal  on  his  part  would  be  dangerous, 
he  suddenly  arose  and  said:  "I  am  with  you." 

The  first  attack  was  made  on  the  Redwood  Agency.  The  savages  burst 
on  the  place  unexpectedly  and  killed  several  white  people.  All  who  could 
escape  fled  in  terror  across  the  Minnesota  River.  The  crossing  was  by  a  ferry- 
boat, and  was  a  slow  and  dangerous  process,  the  fugitives  being  closely  fol- 
lowed by  a  horde  of  infuriated  savages. 

The  ferryman  was  a  French  Canadian,  illiterate  and  ignorant,  and  seem- 
ingly incapable  of  doing  anything  higher  than  running  his  boat  across  the 
river.  But  in  this  supreme  moment  he  proved  himself  a  hero  of  the  highest 
type.  He  carried  the  refugees  across  as  they  managed  to  escape  to  the 
landing,  and  returned,  time  and  again,  until  all  who  were  not  killed  had 
been  taken  to  the  other  side. 

On  his  last  trip,  the  savages,  maddened  at  the  way  in  which  he  had 
rescued  the  people,  fired  a.  final  shot  at  him  and  he  dropped  dead  in  his  boat. 
He  had  saved  over  fifty  people,  most  of  them  women  and  children,  at  the 
sacrifice  of  his  own  life. 

Having  finished  at  the  agency,  the  Indians  moved  down  the  river,  under 
the  leadership  of  Cut  Nose,  killing  twenty-five  fleeing  settlers  on  the  way. 
The  most  fiendish  acts  of  cruelty  and  atrocity  were  perpetrated.  The  vic- 
tims in  some  instances  were  hacked  to  pieces;  children  were  seized  by  the 
legs  and  their  brains  were  beaten  out  against  the  wall ;  some  were  hung 
alive  on  hooks,  with  sticks  driven  through  their  legs,  as  the  carcasses  of 
slaughtered  animals  are  suspended.  The  women  were  invariably  ravished 
by  the  whole  band,  and  then  killed.  The  bodies  of  men  and  boys  were 
mutilated  in  a  manner  that  only  fiendish  ingenuity  could  devise.  Children 
were  fastened  to  doors  and  tables  with  nails  drjven  through  the  hands  and 
feet,  while  the  savages  amused  themselves  by  throwing  knives  and  toma- 
hawks at  them  until  they  killed  them.  Sometimes  houses  were  surrounded 
and  the  surprised  inmates  burned  alive. 

In  one  instance,  the  savages  entered  a  settler's  house  where  a  woman  was 
engaged  in  making  bread.  They  split  her  head  open  with  an  axe,  and  then 
took  the  baby  from  the  cradle  and  baked  it  in  the  oven  until  nearly  dead, 
when  its  brains  were  beaten  out  against  a  wall. 

Meantime,  Captain  March  had  been  dispatched  from  Fort  Ridgely  to  meet 
the  marauders  and  come  to  the  aid  of  the  settlers.  On  his  way  up  the  river 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS 


383 


be  encountered  the  Indians,  and  while  parleying  with  them,  on  the  other 
side  of  the  river,  a  number  crossed  to  where  he  and  his  little  force  stood  and 
ambushed  them,  killing  twenty  at  the  first  fire.  He  himself  fought  his  way 
out,  losing  all  but  nine  men.  While  trying  to  ford  the  stream  farther 
down,  his  retreat  was  cut  off,  and  he  was  drowned,  but  the  nine  survivors 
succeeded  in  reaching  the  other  side  in  safety. 

The  Upper  Agency  on  the  Yellow  Medicine  was  saved  through  the  good- 
ness of  Other  Day,  a  friendly  Indian,  who  informed  the  garrison. 

Instances  of  escape  and  thrilling  adventure  during  the  march  of  the  sav- 
ages down  the  river  would  be  considered  exaggeration,  if  found  in  the  regu- 
lation Indian  dime  novel.  The  instances  of  heroism  and  self-sacrifice  also 
were  striking.  In  one  case  two  brothers  placed  their  sick  mother  on  a  mat- 
tress in  a  wagon,  and  sought  to  reach  a  place  of  safety.  They  were  pursued 
by  the  Indians  and  could  have  escaped,  but  would  not  abandon  their  mother, 
and  both  were  killed  while 
she  was  compelled  to  witness 
their  murder.  The  savages 
then  set  fire  to  the  mattress, 
burning  her  to  death. 

All  the  Indians  in  this 
locality  were  now  aroused, 
and  their  savage  instincts 
were  inflamed  to  the  fiercest 
degree.  They  were  deter  mined 
on  a  war  of  extermination. 
They  moved  next  on  New 
Ulm,  a  town  then  containing 
about  fifteen  hundred  inhabi- 
tants and  some  five  hundred 
fugitives,  who  had  fled  before  WARRIOR  WITH  BEAR  CLAW  NECKLACE. 

the  advancing  hostiles.  Most  of  the  people  were  women  and  children,  and 
the  inhabitants  of  the  place  were  unprepared  to  meet  an  attack.  Before  the 
arrival  of  the  savages,  Mr.  Boardman  from  St.  Peter's,  with  fifteen  men, 
reached  the  town,  and  began  preparing  means  for  defense. 

With  what  force  he  could  gather  in  the  town,  he  moved  out  to  the  prairie, 
after  dark,  and  repulsed  the  Indians  for  some  time.  At  nine  o'clock  that 
night,  Judge  Flandreau,  with  a  force  of  a  hundred  men,  arrived.  After  a 
prolonged  and  desperate  attack,  in  which  several  lives  were  lost,  the  savages 
withdrew  and  proceeded  to  join  Little  Crow  in  an  attack  on  Fort  Ridgely. 
Sergeant  Jones  and  a  small  force,  with  two  howitzers,  were  sent  to  meet  the 


384  TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG  OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 

advancing  hostiles,  and  to  save  the  defenseless  settlers.  The  Indians'  dread 
of  artillery  kept  them  at  a  safe  distance  for  a  time;  a  violent  rainstorm  com- 
ing on,  the  savages,  fearing  that  their  ammunition  and  arms  might  be  ren- 
dered useless  by  the  rain,  retired  to  the  woods,  yelling  and  gesticulating  in 
the  usual  Indian  manner.  Meantime  the  garrison  had  put  the  fort  in  the 
best  condition  it  could  for  defense. 

The  Indians,  the  next  morning,  after  a  few  desultory  movements,  aban- 
doned the  attack  on  the  fort  and  resumed  the  easier  business  of  murdering  set- 
tlers. They  continued  atrocities  and  mutilated  the  bodies  of  the  dead  in 
the  usual  revolting  manner.  A  few  days  afterward,  Little  Crow,  with 
four  hundred  and  fifty  warriors,  resumed  the  attack  on  Fort  Ridgely,  fight- 
ing with  desperate  persistence.  They  tried  to  set  fire  to  the  agency  buildings 
by  discharging  fire  arrows  into  them,  and  exhausted  every  means  of 
surprise.  For  three  days  the  garrison  had  been  cut  off,  and  the  country  felt 
alarmed  for  their  safety.  Failing  to  capture  the  fort,  Little  Crow  now 
moved  on  to  New  Ulm  again. 

After  the  arrival  of  Judge  Flandreau,  the  attack  on  the  town  had  not  been 
renewed.  The  approach  of  the  Indians  was  marked  by  the  smoke  of  the 
settlers'  dwellings  on  the  way.  The  people  were  as  well  prepared  as  the 
conditions  of  the  situation  allowed.  Judge  Flandreau,  who  now  had  two 
hundred  and  fifty  well-armed  men,  left  the  barricades  and  moved  out  on  the 
prairie  to  encounter  the  Indians.  This  was  the  second  time  that  such  a  false 
move  had  been  made.  The  defenders  were  forced  to  fall  back  behind  the  de- 
fenses of  the  town.  The  battle  raged  all  day  and  was  fought  in  the  regular 
Indian  fashion,  a  series  of  charges,  retreats,  and  counter-charges.  The  sav- 
ages retired  to  a  safe  distance  during  the  night  and  renewed  the  attack  at 
daybreak,  but  -gave  up  the  attempt  to  capture  the  town  at  noon,  and 
withdrew. 

Meantime,  scattered  bands  of  the  hostiles  were  going  through  the  settle- 
ments, murdering  and  burning  on  their  way.  All  the  male  adults  were 
killed,  and  the  women  were  subjected  to  a  worse  fate  before  they  were  mas- 
sacred. Even  children  were  subjected  to  torture. 

Two  hundred  inhabitants  of  New  Ulm  had  gone  to  Mankato ;  their  am- 
munition having  been  exhausted,  their  position  became  indefensible.  The 
bodies  of  the  dead,  in  their  precipitate  flight,  were  left  unburied. 

A  body  of  fourteen  hundred  volunteers  who  had  enlisted  for  the  Civil  War 
were  now  dispatched  under  Colonel  Sibley  to  the  relief  of  the  Redwood 
Agency.  On  the  march  the  most  appalling  sights  were  witnessed.  The 
bodies  of  the  murdered  settlers  were  left  where  they  had  fallen,  and  were,  in 
many  instances,  devoured  by  hogs  and  prairie  wolves.  Over  two  hundred 
bodies  were  buried  by  the  soldiers  while  on  this  march. 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS.  385 

Colonel  Sibley,  after  his  arrival  at  the  fort,  sent  Major  Brown  with  one 
hundred  and  sixty  men  to  ascertain  in  what  direction  the  Indians  had  gone. 
He  camped  at  a  place  called  Birch  Cooley,  admirably  adapted  for  a  surprise, 
where  he  was  discovered  by  Little  Crow.  The  Indians  approached  unex- 
pectedly, and  at  the  first  fire  most  of  the  guard  and  nearly  a  hundred  horses 
fell.  Had  the  Indians  charged  they  could  have  captured  the  entire  camp, 
but  fortunately  they  held  off.  Meantime  the  troops  rallied  behind  the  dead 
horses,  the  wagons,  and  every  available  object,  and  fought  to  the  best  ad- 
vantage possible.  The  Indian  warriors  were  over  one  thousand  strong. 
Captain  McPhail  was  dispatched  to  the  fort  for  relief,  but  before  going 
many  miles  he  met  Colonel  Sibley,  with  his  full  force  on  the  way,  who  had 
heard  the  firing. 

As  the  long  line  of  troops  appeared,  coming  over  the  prairie,  the  Indians 
hurriedly  withdrew.  When  the  troops  reached  the  scene  of  conflict,  they 
found  the  defenders  in  the  last  stage  of  exhaustion,  having  been  all  day 
without  food  or  water,  fighting  as  best  they  could,  with  thirteen  of  their 
number  dead  and  sixty  wounded.  It  would  have  been  impossible  for  them 
to  have  held  out  more  than  a  few  hours  longer. 

Little  Crow,  realizing  the  military  strength  opposed  to  him,  sued  for 
peace.  He  was  crafty,  cunning,  and  quick  to  discern  the  impracticability  of 
continued  resistance.  He  was  known  to  be  an  inveterate  liar,  full  of 
double-dealing  and  treachery,  but  wide-awake  and  shrewd.  He  had  judg- 
ment enough  to  use  his  influence  in  preventing  the  murdering  of  settlers 
further,  but  the  traders,  whom  he  detested  were  murdered  ruthlessly. 

Another  incident  at  this  juncture  contributed  to  bring  about  a  cessation  of 
hostilities  on  the  part  of  the  Indians.  The  tribes  who  lived  on  the  upper 
and  lower  river  had  a  dispute  about  the  distribution  of  the  plunder  taken  at 
the  lower  agency,  and  the  breach  nearly  ended  in  a  battle  among  themselves. 

Little  Crow  represented  that  the  Indians  were  only  fighting  for  their  rights, 
and  although  their  rights  had  not  been  secured,  they  were,  nevertheless,  will- 
ing to  make  peace  with  the  white  people.  Colonel  Sibley  refused  to  treat, 
except  on  condition  of  the  surrender  of  white  captives  by  the  Indians. 
Little  Crow,  knowing  that  the  possession  of  these  prisoners  was  one  of  his 
strongest  advantages  in  negotiating  for  peace,  would  not  give  them  up. 

About  two  weeks  afterward  Colonel  Sibley  marched  against  the  Indians 
and  defeated  them  at  Yellow  Medicine  Agency,  Little  Crow,  with  two  hun- 
dred of  his  warriors,  retreating  into  Dakota.  The  others,  among  whom 
were  a  large  number  of  mission  Indians,  who  now  desired  peace,  requested 
Colonel  Sibley  to  come  and  take  the  white  captives  before  Little  Crow  could 
return  and  kill  them. 


386  TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG  OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 

Colonel  Sibley's  forces  accordingly  marched  to  the  Indian  camp,  where 
they  were  received  by  the  Indians  with  every  manifestation  of  delight.  The 
wretches,  who  had  murdered  so  many  innocent  men,  women  and  children  in 
the  most  fiendish  manner,  now  shook  hands  with  the  soldiers,  declaring  that 
they  were  glad  to  see  them,  also  that  they  had  always  desired  to  live  in 
peace  with  the  whites.  More  than  two  hundred  captives,  principally  women 
and  children,  were  handed  over  to  the  troops. 

The  sufferings  of  the  prisoners  had  been  extreme;  some  were  on  the  verge 
of  insanity;  some  told  the  most  heartrending  tales  as  they  clasped  their 
rescuers,  weeping  in  rejoicing.  Other  captives  were  brought  in,  and  all  told 
the  same  tale  of  kindred  and  friends  slain  and  outrages  endured. 

One  incident  in  this  campaign  of  massacre  is  especially  worthy  of  men- 
tion— the  escape  of  Burton  Eastwick  and  his  little  brother.  Burton  was  but 
ten^years  old  and  his  brother  five.  Having  escaped  massacre,  both  started 
for  Fort  Ridgely,  a  distance  of  eighty  miles.  They  did  not  know  where  the 
fort  was ;  the  elder  child  only  knew  that  the  soldiers  were  somewhere  down 
the  river. 

Sometimes  the  elder  boy  carried  his  little  brother  in  his  arms  over  rough 
places,  resting  with  him  every  now  and  then  when  he  was  tired  out  or 
frightened.  But  the  two  children  finally  reached  the  fort,  to  the  surprise  of 
the  soldiers,  who  could  scarcely  believe  at  first  they  had  come  such  a  long 
and  toilsome  journey;  living  on  berries  and  fruits,  which  they  gathered  on 
the  way,  having  to  be  always  on  the  alert  to  prevent  being  discovered  by 
the  Indians. 

Besides  those  killed  many  persons  were  lost  in  wandering  over  the  prai- 
ries, vainly  endeavoring  to  escape.  Some  went  mad,  others  died  of  starva- 
tion "and  exposure. 

The  Indians  who  surrendered  were  carefully  guarded,  and  Lieutenant- 
Colonel  Marshall  was  sent  into  Dakota,  where  he  captured  a  portion  of  Little 
Crow's  band. 

In  October  the  prisoners  were  brought  to  Mankato,  and  on  the  way  to  Fargo 
passed  through  New  Ulm.  All  were  in  wagons,  well  secured  and  guarded ; 
as  they  entered  the  town  on  Sunday  morning,  the  news  spread  in  a  few 
moments,  when  the  entire  population  turned  out  to  attack  them.  The  people 
of  the  town  who  had  suffered  so  severely  at  the  hands  of  these  bloodthirsty 
wretches,  and  who  had  barely  saved  their  lives,  assembled  with  every 
weapon  they  could  find  at  hand — guns,  pistols,  axes,  pitchforks,  and  sticks, 
while  the  women  filled  their  aprons  with  stones  and  flung  them  at  the  heads 
of  the  prisoners.  One  woman  seized  an  Indian  by  the  hair,  and  half  dragged 
him  out  of  the  wagon,  pounding  his  head  with  a  stone,  before  she  was  taken 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG  OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS.  387 

off  by  the  soldiers.     The  soldiers  in  many  cases  were  compelled  to  use  vio- 
lence in  order  to  save  the  lives  of  the  Indian  prisoners. 

The  Indians  were  finally  tried  by  a  military  commission,  and  three  hun- 
dred and  three  of  their  number  were  condemned  to  be  hanged,  and  eighteen 
to  be  imprisoned  for  life.  This  decision  was  reversed  by  the  authorities  at 
Washington,  who  pardoned  all  but  thirty-eight,  who  were  hanged  on  Febru- 
ary 26, 1803.  They  died  with  the  stoicism  characteristic  of  the  Indian,  with- 
out manifesting  signs  of  fear. 

In  this  terrible  massacre  six  hundred  and  forty-four  settlers  and  ninety- 
three  sol'liers  were  slain,  and  the  country  round  about  had  been  desolated  for 
more  than  two  hundred  miles. 

After  the  suppression  of  the  hostiles,  isolated  bands  continued  for  some 
time  to  raid  here  and  there,  and  killed  thirty  more  whites.  Little  Crow 
escaped  capture,  but  retributive  justice  overtook  the  miscreant,  and  he  paid 
the  penalty  for  his  atrocities  with  his  life  even  before  the  affair  was 
ended.  A  farmer  and  his  son  were  passing  along  the  prairie  when  they 
saw  two  Indians  picking  berries  in  a  clump  of  bushes.  The  horrors  of  the 
massacre  were  fresh  in  the  farmer's  memory,  and  he  crept  stealthily  within 
rifle  shot  of  the  Indians  and  fired.  One  Indian  jumped  in  the  air  with  a 
yell,  then  dropped,  and  crawled  along  on  his  hands  and  knees  through  the 
prairie  grass  in  the  direction  of  his  assailant,  dragging  his  rifle  with  him. 
When  sufficiently  close  he  fired,  but  harmlessly,  and  a  bullet  from  the 
farmer's  rifle  put  an  end  to  him.  The  other  Indian  in  the  meantime  had 
run  away.  He  was  afterward  captured,  and  it  was  not  discovered  until  then 
that  the  Indian  who  was  shot  was  none  other  than  the  prisoner's  father, 
Little  Crow. 

The  results  of  this  massacre  were  very  disastrous,  preventing  for  a  long 
time  further  settlement  of  that  part  of  the  country.  With  proper  pre- 
caution, too,  the  massacre  might  have  been  prevented.  Bishop  Whipple 
had  predicted  the  outbreak,  and  on  more  than  one  occasion  had  warned  the 
authorities.  He  laid  the  blame  on  the  Government,  owing  to  its  system  of 
dealing  with  the  Indians,  and  neglect  in  preventing  the  robbery  of  them  by 
agents  and  traders.  For  the  eight  hundred  thousand  acres  of  land  sold  to 
the  Government,  the  Inv'liaus  received  scarcely  anything.  The  amount  due 
to  them  was  absorbed  in  various  pretended  claims,  and  a  large  portion  of 
their  annuities  were  stolen  under  similar  pretexts  by  pirates  who  made  for- 
tunes by  robbing  both  the  Government  and  the  Indian. 

For  every  dollar  of  which  the  Indian  was  robbed,  the  Government  lost  ten, 
to  say  nothing  of  the  loss  of  human  life,  the  destruction  of  property,  and  the 
retarding,  for  a  long  time,  of  the  progress  of  civilization. 


388 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 


CHAPTER  XLVI. 

THE  FUR  COMPANIES— HOW  THEY  OPERATED— HUNTERS  AND  TRADERS  IN 
THE  INDIAN  COUNTRY— THEIR  EVERY  DAY  LIFE  AND  EXPLOITS. 

The  First  White  Men  among  the  Wild  Indians — The  Hudson  Bay  Company — How  Trading 
Posts  were  Established  from  Ocean  to  Ocean — Their  Maxim,  "  Never  Trust  an  In- 
dian " — Effect  of  a  White  Man's  Fist  on  an  Indian's  Nose — Fierce  Competition — Vile 
Liquors  Sold  to  the  Indians — John  Jacob  Astor  and  the  American  Fur  Company 
— Hardy  Trappers  and  Daring  Frontiersmen — Danger  of  Trapping  in  a  Hostile 
Country — In  the  Wilderness  for  Several  Years — Robbing  the  Indian — Twenty 
Dollars'  Worth  of  Beaver  Skins  for  Fifty  Cents — "Fire  Water,"  why  so  Named — 
How  Indians  Tested  Brandy — Made  of  the  "  Hearts  of  Wild  Cats  and  the  Tongues 
of  Women  " — Trappers  taken  by  Surprise — Lying  in  Ambush. 

THE  first  white  men  with 
whom  the  Indians  of  the 
north  and  northwestern  parts 
of  this  continent  came  in  con- 
tact were  the  trappers,  hunt- 
ers, and  traders  of  the  various 
Fur  Companies.  An  adven- 
turous explorer,  or  an  enthu- 
siastic missionary  might, 
from  time  to  time,  penetrate 
into  the  heart  of  the  Indian 
country,  but  they  were  seen 
by  only  a  few  of  the  natives 
in  their  transient  passage, 
and  rarely  left  a  lasting  im- 
pression behind  them. 

The  first  Fur  Company  to 
enter  this   wild    region    for 
barter    and    trade    was    the 
OHIPPEWA  IN  WAR  COSTUME.  Hudson  Bay  Company.  This 

association  was  formed  dur- 
ing the  reign  of  Charles  II.,  for  the  purpose  of  importing  into  Great  Britain 
furs  and  skins  obtained  from  the  Indians  of  British  North  America,  or  secured 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS.  38U 

in  their  territory.  The  company  established  numerous  trading  posts  through- 
out the  immense  region  bounded  east  by  the  Altantic,  west  by  the  Pacific,  north 
by  the  Arctic  ocean,  and  south  by  what  is  now  a  portion  of  the  United  States. 
This  company  had  an  exclusive  monopoly  of  the  fur  trade  in  this  vast  terri- 
tory, and  it  also  controlled  the  entire  legislative,  judicial,  and  executive 
powers  within  those  limits. 

In  the  course  of  time  this  company  developed  into  one  of  the  most  com- 
plete as  well  as  tyrannical  commercial  systems  in  the  world.  The  native 
Indians  were  as  fierce  as  those  of  any  other  portion  of  the  North  American 
Continent,  yet  the  company  and  its  officials  had  little  difficulty  with  them. 
This,  according  to  the  authorities  of  the  company,  was  mainly  attributable 
to  the  perfect  system  of  discipline  maintained  among  their  employees.  One 
of  their  maxims  was  never  to  trust  an  Indian,  no  matter  how  friendly  he 
might  seem  or  how  honest  he  pretended  to  be.  In  case  of  difficulty  or  trou- 
ble, employees  were  instructed  to  act  with  the  utmost  prudence  and  firm- 
ness, to  be  as  just  as  they  were  stern,  and  never  to  use  their  weapons,  or  kill 
an  Indian,  except  in  self-defense.  Any  exhibition  of  hostility  or  even  arro- 
gance was  to  be  stopped  the  moment  it  showed  itself.  The  punishment  for 
insolence  or  petty  offenses  was  to  knock  the  Indian  down  at  once  with  the 
fist.  However  expert  the  Indian  might  be  with  his  knife,  lance,  gun,  or 
other  weapon,  he  was  invariably  taken  back  by  the  landing  of  a  white 
man's  fist  on  his  nose. 

No  offense  on  the  part  of  the  Indians  was  passed  unnoticed,  but  instead  of 
shooting  the  culprits  down,  or  butchering  them  indiscriminately,  the  tribe 
was  frequently  prevailed  upon  to  send  in  the  criminal  for  punishment,  and 
he  usually  got  off  with  a  reprimand,  sometimes  receiving  a  present,  which 
made  him  for  the  time  being  at  least  a  "good  Indian."  Under  this  system, 
the  company's  trade  prospered  immensely. 

After  the  cession  of  Canada,  in  1763,  numbers  of  fur  traders  spread  over 
that  country  and  into  the  northwestern  part  of  the  continent,  and  began  to 
encroach  on  the  Hudson  Bay  Company's  territory.  These  individual  spec- 
ulators finally  combined,  forming  the  Northwest  Fur  Company  in  1787. 
They  had  their  headquarters  at  Fort  William,  where  the  directors  or  their 
representatives  met  once  a  year.  The  trade  of  this  company  was  in  the 
region  of  the  north. 

There  were  many  other  companies  engaged  in  this  business  both  before 
and  after  the  amalgamation  of  the  Hudson  Bay  and  Northwest  Com- 
panies. 

Fierce  competition  at  once  sprang  up  between  these  rival  companies.  Both 
supplied  the  Indians  with  an  abundance  of  intoxicating  liquors,  in  order  to 


390  TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG  OUR  HOSTILE   INDIANS. 

increase  their  trade  and  maintain  commercial  supremacy  in  the  Indian 
country.  The  consequence  was  inevitable.  The  worst  passions  of  both 
Indians  and  whites— many  of  these  latter  being  really  half-breeds—were 
inflamed  to  the  fiercest  degree,  and  great  destruction  of  human  life  and  prop- 
erty was  the  result.  The  supply  of  furs,  too,  threatened  to  become  ex- 
hausted by  the  indiscriminate  slaughter,  even  in  the  breeding  season,  of  both 
male  and  female  animals. 

The  Northwest  Company  had  the  monopoly  of  the  fur  trade  of  the  entire 
region  of  the  Northwest,  and  were  also  practically  the  political  rulers  of  that 
great  stretch  of  territory. 

The  Mackinaw  Company,  another  rival,  was  subsequently  established  and 
sought  to  monopolize  the  trade  to  the  south  and  southwest  of  the  Northwest 
Company.  Meantime,  John  Jacob  Astor  engaged  in  the  fr.r  trade  on  his 
own  account,  and  obtained  a  charter  from  the  legislature  of  New  York  in 
1809,  incorporating  the  American  Fur  Company.  The  rivalry  of  the  Mack- 
inaw Company  rendering  his  own  venture  unprofitable,  he  and  some  mem- 
bers of  the  Northwest  Company  bought  out  the  Mackinaw  Company,  and 
established  a  new  one  under  the  name  of  the  Southwest  Company,  embrac- 
ing part  of  the  Northwest  Company,  the  American  Company,  and  probably 
the  interests  of  individual  traders,  who  had  become  strong.  This  company 
controlled  a  number  of  establishments  within  both  British  and  American 
territory.  Mr.  Astor  engaged  in  the  trade  in  consequence  of  the  treaty  of 
1794,  which  permitted  commercial  intercourse  between  Canada  and  the 
United  States,  and  entailed  the  evacuation  of  all  the  posts  held  by  the  Brit- 
ish within  United  States  territory. 

Previous  to  the  establishment  of  the  American  Fur  Company,  Congress 
enacted  a  law  decreeing  that  all  fur  traders  in  the  United  States  territory 
should  be  American  citizens,  and  that  no  foreigners  should  be  employed  in 
this  line  of  business  unless  under  bonds  furnished  by  American  employers 
for  the  proper  conduct  of  these  traders. 

The  central  business  post  of  the  consolidated  companies  was  near  Sault 
Ste.  Marie,  on  Lake  Superior.  The  interior  sub-posts  extended  over  a  vast 
region,  running  north  to  the  fifty-ninth  degree  north  latitude,  and  west  as  far 
as  the  Missouri  River.  It  was  found  impossible  to  conduct  the  business  suc- 
cessfully without  employing  some  of  the  agents,  clerks,  interpreters,  and 
boatmen  of  the  old  company,  all  of  whom  were  foreigners  or  French  Cana- 
dians. This  procedure  exercised  an  evil  influence  on  all  Indians  in  that 
region. 

As  already  stated,  when  the  commercial  rivalry  between  the  two  British 
Fur  Companies  sprang  up,  both  parties  sold  the  Indians  ardent  spirits.  Con- 


TWENTY   YEARS  AMONG  OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS.  391 

gress  passed  a  law,  after  the  establishment  of  the  American  Fur  Company, 
prohibiting  the  sale  of  intoxicants  to  Indians,  not  even  allowing  their  intro- 
duction into  their  country  under  any  circumstances.  But  as  the  old  em- 
ployees of  the  Northwest  Company  virtually  held  the  field  of  trade,  this  law 
was  almost  a  dead  letter.  They  were  employed  to  secure  furs,  and  to  utilize 
the  Indians  in  every  way  necessary  for  this  purpose,  and  aimed  only  to  make 
good  returns  to  their  employers.  The  consequence  was  that  the  Indian  was 
debased,  and  all  the  inherent  evil  in  his  nature  was  awakened  and  set  in 
motion. 

The  political  influence  exercised  on  the  Indians  of  the  Northwest  was  also 
bad.  The  great  body  of  Indians  in  the  region  of  the  upper  lakes,  and  ex- 
tending to  the  source  of  the  Mississippi,  were  averse  to  American  rule. 
Many  of  them  had  been  influenced  to  fight  the  Americans,  who  were  fre- 
quently ambushed,  surprised,  and  attacked  in  various  ways  and  in  many 
places,  including  Fort  Dearborn  (now  Chicago),  Brownstone,  River  Basin, 
Manmee,  Fort  Harrison,  Machilimackimac,  and  other  strongholds.  The 
British  fur  traders  made  the  Indians  believe  that  the  Americans  were  to  be 
driven  back  to  the  lines  of  the  Illinois  and  Ohio  Rivers,  an  old  and  popular 
wish  of  the  Lake  Indians  from  early  days.  Large  numbers  of  them  joined 
the  British  in  the  war  that  followed,  and  suffered  severely.  Their  great 
chief  was  killed;  their  prophet,  Elksatawa,  was  driven  into  Canada;  and 
what  was  worse,  they  were  abandoned  by  the  British  after  the  close  of  the 
war.  Many  of  them  never  came  back ;  those  who  did,  and  those  who  had 
remained  in  United  States  territory,  were  discontented,  sullen,  and  hostile. 
It  was  among  these  that  the  foreign  employees  of  the  American  Fur  Company 
traded.  To  their  baneful  influence  more  than  to  anything  else  may  be 
largely  ascribed  the  beginning  of  our  subsequent  troubles  with  the  Indians 
of  the  Northwest. 

These  trappers  included  many  of  the  most  hardy  and  daring  frontiersmen 
of  those  days.  Their  trapping  expeditions  were  always  led  by  one  man.  It 
was  their  custom  to  travel  up  the  streams  until  they  came  to  the  mouth  of  a 
stream  confluent  to  the  one  on  which  they  were  traveling,  where  they  made 
camp.  They  then  trapped  to  the  entire  source  of  this  stream,  and  after 
securing  all  the  beaver,  otter,  and  other  pelts  possible,  returned  to  the 
main  stream  again,  moving  camp  to  the  mouth  of  the  next  stream  above, 
going  up  that,  and  so  on  until  thej*  arrived  at  the  source  of  the  main  river. 
Sometimes  trapping  parties  were  absent  for  one  or  two  years  at  a  time, 
subsisting  almost  entirely  on  meats  and  fish.  Their  only  means  of  trans- 
portation, as  a  rule,  were  pack  animals  and  small  boats. 

It  may  be  interesting  to  state  here  that  while  the  trappers  had  no  bread, 


\ 


392  TWENTY    YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 

flour,  or  vegetables  of  any  kind,  they  subsisted  very  well  on  the  different 
meats  which  they  obtained  in  abundance  along  the  rivers,  the  flesh  of  the 
beaver  being  particularly  sweet  and  nutritious,  resembling  much  the  flavor 
of  fresh  pork. 

The  Fur  Companies  were  exceedingly  arbitrary  in  dealing  with  their  own 
and  other  men.  Being  far  from  civilization,  the  only  law  that  they  ap- 
pealed to  was  force.  This  they  used  in  various  ways.  Their  traffic  was 
highly  remunerative,  and  the  companies  grew  immensely  wealthy.  The 
more  wealth  they  secured,  the  more  arbitrary  they  became,  frequently  com- 
mitting acts  for  which,  in  a  civilized  community,  they  would  have  been 
condemned  and  severely  punished.  To  the  employees  of  these  companies  can 
be  traced  more  viciousness  on  the  part  of  the  North  American  Indians  than 
to  any  other  source.  They  did  more  to  demoralize  them  than  any  other 
agency.  They  simply  robbed  the  Indians  of  their  property  whenever  oppor- 
tunity offered.  It  was  not  uncommon  for  them  to  secure  two  or  three  choice 
beaver  skins  for  a  butcher  knife  valued  at  fifty  or  seventy-five  cents,  one 
beaver  skin  alone  being  worth  in  gold  from  four  to  eight  dollars,  according 
to  its  size  and  condition.  The  Fur  Companies  made  all  the  men  connected 
with  them  immensely  wealthy,  from  John  Jacob  Astor  down. 

To  offset  this  record,  in  a  measure,  it  may  be  said  that  the  Fur  Companies 
were  the  first  agency  to  send  civilized  persons  into  what  was  then  an  un- 
known country.  They  first  learned  the  nature  of  the  country  and  its  inhabi- 
tants. As  their  trappers  and  hunters  traveled  up  the  streams  and  along 
nearly  every  river  throughout  this  vast  region,  they  made  maps  of  the  coun- 
try, and  especially  of  the  rivers  where  the  most  valuable  pelts  were  obtained, 
delivering  the  maps  to  the  companies'  agents.  These  maps  were  withheld 
by  the  fur  companies  from  the  general  public,  in  order  that  no  encroach- 
ments should  be  made  on  their  rich  hunting  grounds. 

Occasionally  a  party  of  trappers  sent  out  by  one  of  the  companies  were 
massacred  and  their  goods  taken  by  the  Indians.  The  story  of  these  occur- 
rences was  always  exaggerated  by  the  Fur  Companies,  then  scattered  broad- 
cast throughout  the  country  to  show  the  great  danger  attending  trapping  ex- 
peditions, and  the  great  loss  entailed  on  the  companies  themselves  by  such 
massacres.  This  was  done  to  prevent  others  from  engaging  in  the  same 
business.  As  late  as  1866,  these  companies  sent  trapping  expeditions 
throughout  the  western  country,  and  all  of  them,  even  as  late  as  this,  secured 
large  numbers  of  valuable  pelts,  although  they  did  not  trade  much  with  the 
Indians.  Most  of  the  trading  done  with  the  red  man  was  for  buffalo  robes, 
bear,  deer,  fox,  and  wolf  skins.  The  articles  traded  by  the  companies  for 
pelts  in  latter  days  consisted  of  butcher  knives,  red  blankets,  scarlet  cloth, 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG  OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS.  393 

various  colored  paints  for  the  Indians  to  decorate  their  faces1  and  bodies,  such 
as  yellow  ochre,  carmine,  vermilion,  and  indigo  blue,  small  mirrors,  beads, 
Iroquois  shells,  brass  buttons,  and  other  articles  of  small  value. 

When  the  Fur  Companies  first  began  to  supply  ardent  liquor  to  the  Indians 
in  order  to  help  their  trade,  the  liquor  was  imported  from  England.  It  was 
the  cheapest  and  most  poisonous  brand  manufactured  at  the  time,  and  for 
that  reason  was  all  the  more  acceptable  to  the  Indian.  •  When  it  reached  the 
Hudson  Bay  territory,  or  the  great  region  within  which  the  rival  fur  com- 
panies traded,  it  was  carried  overland  to  the  various  posts.  For  conven- 
ience of  transportation,  casks  or  barrels  of  liquor  were  divided  into  kegs.  The 
carriers  soon  learned  that  they  could  make  a  profit  by  diluting  the  liquor 
with  water,  when  changing  it  from  the  barrels  into  kegs.  The  Indians, 
however,  missed  the  powerful  effects  and  suspected  that  they  were  being 
cheated.  They  learned  how  to  test  liquor  before  exchanging  peltries  for  it. 
The  liquor  was  poured  on  a  fire,  and  if  the  fire  was  extinguished  it  was 
evident  that  the  liquor  was  watered,  and  they  at  once  pronounced  it  "bad." 
If,  on  the  contrary,  the  liquor  added  to  the  flame,  they  knew  that  the  alcohol 
had  not  been  tampered  with,  and  it  was  accepted  as  genuine  "fire  water." 
Hence  the  name  "fire  water,"  as  used  by  the  Indians,  when  referring  to 
liquor.  That  the  "fire  water"  supplied  to  the  Indians  of  that  day  was  com- 
parable to  the  vilest  stuff  of  present  day  manufacture,  is  illustrated  by  an 
Indian  chief  who  had  experienced  its  effects,  and  who  had  witnessed  the  sad 
havoc  it  had  produced  among  his  people.  "Fire  water,"  exclaimed  this 
savage,  "can  only  be  distilled  from  the  hearts  of  wild  cats  and  tongues  of 
women,  it  makes  my  people  at  once  so  fierce  and  so  foolish." 

The  hunters  and  trappers  employed  by  the  Fur  Companies  were  shrewd  and 
adventurous  characters.  They  were  perfect  mountaineers  and  frontiersmen, 
as  much  at  home  in  the  untrodden  forest  as  in  the  civilization  they  had  left 
behind.  They  learned  the  habits  of  the  red  man,  the  untamed  savagenessof 
his  nature,  and  the  danger  of  placing  confidence  in  him.  Hence,  they  were 
rarely  taken  by  surprise.  They  were  led  by  such  men  as  Major  Henry 
Vanderburgh,  Jim  Bridger,  Jim  Baker,  and  many  others  whose  names  will 
always  be  connected  with  the  history  of  that  country. 

These  hardy  and  intrepid  men  pursued  their  trade  at  all  seasons  of  the 
year,  and  in  the  face  of  tremendous  obstacles.  They  penetrated  into  the  ter- 
ritory of  unknown  tribes,  and  were  prepared  to  resist,  if  they  could  not 
evade,  all  perils  and  enemies.  Many  romances  of  Indian  life  have  been 
written,  most  of  them  greatly  exaggerated,  and  some  of  them  preposterously 
absurd  ;  but  if  the  real  details  of  some  of  the  daring  ad  ventures  of  these  early 
trappers  could  be  written  they  would  verify  the  old  adage  that  "truth  is 


.. 


394  TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 

stranger  than  fiction."  Sometimes  a  solitary  trapper  was  murdered  by  the 
treacherous  Indians,  and  never  heard  of  more.  This  did  not  prevent  another 
trapper  from  starting  over  the  same  route  as  soon  as  sufficient  time  had 
elapsed  to  convince  him  that  his  predecessor  was  dead. 

Their  moral  and  physical  courage  have  not  been  duly  appreciated.  The 
general  goes  to  battle  surrounded  with  his  legions,  in  all  the  panoply  of  war, 
and  if  he  meets  disaster,  he  can  escape  under  what  is  called  a  well-ordered 
retreat.  But  the  trapper  or  hunter  could  not  retreat,  and  as  for  fighting, 
he  was  compelled  to  do  it  all  himself.  Occasionally  a  number  of  trappers 
went  together  when  entering  the  territory  of  a  powerful  and  treacherous 
nation,  such  as  the  Blackfeet  or  the  Crows.  On  these  occasions  they  used 
diplomacy,  and  when  that  failed,  they  fought  their  way  through,  or  were 
killed.  Few  of  such  murders  have  been  recorded,  but  they  were  generally 
heralded  throughout  the  country  by  the  Fur  Companies  at  the  time.  Occa- 
sionally an  incident  occurred  of  such  a  bloody  or  dramatic  character  as  to 
become  historical. 

Of  these  one  of  the  most  noteworthy  was  the  massacre  of  Major  Vander- 
burgh  and  his  party.  They  were  in  the  employ  of  the  American  Fur  Com- 
pany, and  hunted  and  trapped  among  Indians  who  had  been  up  to  that  time 
somewhat  friendly.  Major  Vanderburgh's  party  numbered  about  one  hun- 
dred men.  He  was  careful  of  their  lives  and  distrustful  of  the  savages, 
whom  he  knew  well. 

At  this  time  there  was  the  most  intense  rivalry  between  the  many  Fur 
Companies,  each  seeking  by  every  possible  means  to  obtain  the  mastery  of 
the  fur  trade. 

The  Rocky  Mountain  Company  was  managed  by  two  experienced  and 
shrewd  men — Fitzpatrick  and  Jim  Bridger;  while  the  Americaa  Fur  Com- 
pany had  in  its  employ  Major  Henry  Vanderburgh  and  Mr.  Dripps.  Van- 
derburgh  was  one  of  the  most  daring  leaders  in  the  pathless  wilds  of  the 
West,  and  a  typical  American  frontiersman.  All  of  these  men  were  coura- 
geous, enterprising,  and  vigilant,  but  Vanderburgh  and  Dripps  lacked  the 
experience  of  the  others  and  were  unacquainted  with  the  mountain  regions. 

Both  Bridger  and  Fitzpatrick  had  been  traders  and  trappers  for  years  and 
knew  every  spot  of  these  wilds.  They  were  impressed  by  the  fact  that  the 
evils  of  competition  were  injuring  the  two  companies,  and  endeavored  to 
bring  about  a  compromise  that  would  redound  to  the  benefit  of  both. 

They  accordingly  proposed  that  the  country  should  be  divided  into  sec- 
tions and  allotted  to  each,  neither  intruding  on  the  territory  of  the  other. 
This  sensible  proposition  was  not  accepted,  and  both  companies  continued 
their  rivalry  with  increased  energy. 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 


31)5 


Bridger  and  Fitzpatrick,  acting  on  their  experience  and  knowledge  of  the 
country,  sought  to  throw  Vanderburgh  and  Dripps  on  the  wrong  track,  and 
to  a  certain  extent  succeeded ;  but  what  Major  Vanderburgh  lacked  in  ex- 
perience he  made  up  in  intelligence,  now  following  his  rivals  with  irritating 
perseverance,  and  then  leading  them  a  hot  chase. 

Finally,  in  an  ill-judged  moment,  Vanderburgh  divided  his  party  in  the 
midst  of  the   Indian  country,  Dripps  going  in  one  direction,  and  himself, 
with  some  fifty  to  seventy-five  men,  in  another.     He  was  in  the  hunting 
ground  of  the  Blackfeet,  and 
having   come  on  a  deserted 
Indian     camp     which    bore 
traces     of     the     precipitate 
flight    of    the    savages,    he 
unwisely     followed     their 
trail. 

While  the  party  were  pas- 
sing through  a  ravine  uncon- 
scious of  danger,  they  were 
suddenly  startled  by  the  yells 
and  warwhoops  of  a  legion 
of  Indians  who  sprang  from 
ambush  and  closed  upon 
them  from  every  side. 
Major  Vanderburgh 's  horse 
was  killed  at  the  first  on- 
slaught, and  in  falling  he 
carried  the  rider  with  him, 
pinioning  him  to  the  ground. 
Unable  to  extricate  himself, 
he  determined  to  defend  his 
life  as  best  he  could.  One  of 

his  party  was  scalped  almost  within  an  arm's  length  of  him,  most  of  the 
others  were  killed  near  the  spot  where  he  fell.  He  had  a  rifle  across  his 
saddle  and  two  pistols  in  bis  belt;  and  when  the  savages  approached  to  dis- 
patch him,  he  raised  his  rifle  and  shot  the  first  one  dead.  He  then  drew  both 
pistols  and  emptied  the  last  shot  at  the  yelling  red  men,  while  still  lying 
pinned  to  the  ground  by  his  horse.  After  firing  his  last  shot  the  Blackfeet 
rushed  in  and  hacked  him  to  death  with  tomahawks. 

A  large  reward  was  offered  by  the  American  Fur  Company  for  the  recov- 
ery of  his  body,  but  it  was  never  found.    The  Indians  were  supposed  to  have 


WARM  SPRING  INDIAN. 


TWENTY   YEARS  AMONG  OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 

burned  it,  aud  also  the  bodies  of  the  rest  of  the  party  who  lost  their  lives.  At 
any  rate,  no  one  ever  discovered  the  slightest  trace  of  the  massacre,  or  relics 
ef  the  party.  The  incidents  connected  with  the  tragedy  were  subsequently 
learned  from  the  Indians  who  participated  in  it.  The  loss  of  Major  Vander- 
burgh  and  his  party  was  a  serious  blow  to  the  American  Fur  Company. 

In  trapping  for  beaver  and  otter  the  trappers  generally  went  singly,  or  in 
twos,  threes,  or  fours.  They  carried  the  traps  and  outfit  on  their  backs.  A 
trapper  usually  carried  from  six  to  eight  traps.  These  were  generally  set 
in  the  evening  and  visited  in  the  morning,  when,  after  having  reset  the  trap, 
the  catch  was  carried  to  camp. 

While  the  work  was  laborious  and  dangerous  the  trappers  had  plenty  of 
leisure  time;  and  as  the  devil  always  finds  work  for  idle  hands,  they  amused 
themselves  in  leisure  hours  by  swindling  the  Indian  out  of  his  belongings. 
It  was  during  these  times  that  a  trapper  usually  took  an  Indian  woman  for 
his  wife,  and  for  the  time  being  became  more  Indian  than  the  Indians  them- 
selves. Some  of  the  French  Canadian  half-breed  trappers  and  hunters 
became  more  vicious  and  villainous  than  the  savages.  They  knew  all  the 
ways  and  habits  of  the  Indian,  and  as  they  were  more  intelligent  than  the 
latter  they  soon  combined  the  vices  of  barbarism  and  civilization,  without 
the  virtues  of  either. 

Edward  Umfreville,  to  whose  book,  "The  Present  State  of  Hudson's  Bay," 
I  have  already  referred,  was  a  Frenchman  who  had  been  in  the  employ 
of  the  Fur  Companies  for  seven  years;  he  was  also  four  years  in  the  same 
business  for  himself,  making  eleven  years  which  he  spent  among  the  wild 
Indians  in  the  British  possessions.  He  saw  a  few  nations  only,  and  did  not 
travel  farther  west  than  the  vicinity  of  the  Great  Lakes.  His  book  was 
well  and  temperately  written,  but  was  severe  on  the  management  of  the  Fur 
Companies.  He  declared  that  they  did  much  to  demoralize  all  Indians  with 
whom  they  dealt;  that  they  traded  them  at  all  times  a  vile  liquor  known  as 
English  brandy.  This  liquor,  he  states,  made  the  Indians  who  drank  it 
crazy,  and  when  in  this  condition  all  the  viciousness  of  their  nature  asserted 
itself.  During  these  debauches  the  drunken  Indians  not  only  committed 
extreme  acts  of  brutality,  but,  in  many  instances,  murder  also.  After  hav- 
ing swindled  the  Indian  out  of  all  his  pelts  and  other  articles  of  value  the 
companies  drove  him  away  by  force,  leaving  him  in  a  worse  condition  than 
before,  for  during  the  winter  it  was  almost  impossible  for  the  Indians  to 
secure  food  for  themselves  and  their  families,  in  consequence  of  which  they 
suffered  greatly. 

The  Indian  of  a  hundred  and  twenty-five  years  ago,  as  he  knew  and 
described  him,  was  in  nowise  different  from  tbe  Indian  that  I  knew,  thus 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS.  397 

showing  that  during  more  than  a  century  he  made  no  material  advance- 
ment, and  no  improvement  in  his  mental  or  moral  condition. 

He  also  speaks  of  many  nations  of  Indians  to  the  far  west,  hut  does  not 
particularize  them,  except  the  Sioux,  of  whom  he  speaks  as  being  a  nation  to 
the  west,  who  must  have  numbered  "at  least  five  hundred,"  thus  showing 
that  at  that  time  no  white  man  had  penetrated  the  Sioux  territory,  for  that 
powerful  nation  did  not  then  number  less  than  seventy-five  thousand  souls. 

The  description  given  by  him  of  the  attack  and  murder  of  a  village  of 
Esquimaux  by  a  part}'  of  Indians,  is  without  parallel.  The  Esquimaux  were 
attacked  while  sleeping,  and  all  were  murdered  in  the  most  fiendish  man- 
ner. A  young  Esquimau  girl  of  about  eighteen  years,  after  having  been 
subjected  to  every  indignity,  was  pinioned  to  the  ground  by  a  spear  driven 
through  her  body;  while  writhing  in  this  position  she  seized  Umfreville  by 
the  legs,  begging  him  to  kill  her. 

The  Indians  would  not  permit  him  to  interfere,  and  she  was  left  to  end 
her  miserable  existence  after  hours  of  excruciating  torture. 

He  is  severe  on  Indian  character,  and  states  that  the  young  were  reared 
without  restraint,  and  that  the  worst  part  of  their  vicious  natures  were 
always  cultivated,  also  that  at  no  time  during  his  eleven  years'  experience 
among  the  Indians,  did  he  ever  know  of  the  lash  having  been  used  by  any 
of  them. 


398  TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 


CHAPTER   XLVII. 

FAMOUS  EXPEDITIONS   INTO   THE  INDIAN   COUNTRY— PERILOUS  JOURNEYS 
OVERLAND  BY  OX  TEAMS  AND  PRAIRIE  SCHOONERS. 

Expeditions  of  Lieutenants  Lewis  and  Clark — Preparations  for  the  Journey — Their  First 
Winter  in  a  Wild  and  Unknown  Country — Assistance  from  Friendly  Indians — Meet- 
ing the  Snakes — Explorations  of  Lieutenants  Pike  and  Long — Capture  of  Lieutenant 
Pike  and  Party — Expedition  of  Captain  Bonneville — Battles  with  the  Early  Traders 
— Gold  Discoveries — The  Rush  to  the  Mines — Fremont's  Expedition — The  Santa  Fe 
Trail — Prairie  Schooners — A  Dangerous  Trip — Excitement  in  the  Pike's  Peak 
Country — An  Overland  Wagon  Train — Waylaid  by  Indians — How  Wagon  Trains 
were  Gorraled — Fighting  against  Odds — The  Great  American  Bull-Whacker — His 
Whip  and  Skill  in  Using  It — An  Incident  on  the  Sweetwater  River — An  Aston- 
ished Indian. 

AFTER  the  acquisition  by  the  United  States  of  the  territory  of  Louisiana 
from  the  French,  in  the  year  1803,  President  Jefferson  and  his  cabinet  de- 
sired to  have  the  newly-acquired  territory  explored.  This  territory  con- 
tained nearly  one  million  square  miles,  and  its  boundaries  were  not  only 
ill-defined,  but  unknown.  Nor  had  the  French,  the  English,  or  the  Span- 
iards any  settled  boundary  line  of  the  territory  they  respectively  claimed  in 
what  was  then  the  far  West.  The  territory  of  Louisiana  then  contained  all 
that  portion  of  the  country  south  of  the  British  possessions,  lying  west  of 
the  Mississippi  River  from  its  source  to  its  mouth,  and  from  the  confluence 
of  the  Sabine  directly  north  to  the  Red  River;  thence  westward  along  this 
river  to  its  source;  thence  along  the  Arkansas  River;  thence  west  to  the 
Rocky  Mountains;  thence  north  to  the  headwaters  of  the  South  Platte;  and 
thence  west  to  the  Pacific  Ocean.  The  President  decided  to  send  an  explor- 
ing party  up  the  Mississippi  River  to  the  mouth  of  the  Missouri,  and  from 
thence  to  make  an  exploration  of  the  Missouri  River,  and  the  country  adja- 
cent thereto,  to  its  source. 

Two  young  army  officers  were  selected  for  this  perilous  expedition.  They 
were  Lieutenants  Lewis  and  Clark.  Both  were  men  of  enterprise  and  brav- 
ery, and  could  be  relied  upon  to  make  an  accurate  statement  of  their  experi- 
ences and  observations.  They  were  sent  to  St.  Louis,  where  the  outfit  was 
secured.  The  party  consisted  of  some  thirty  or  forty  soldiers  and  as  many 
civilians,  mostly  Frenchmen,  from  in  and  about  St.  Louis.  One  entire 


TWENTY   \EARS  AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS.  399 

winter  was  spent  in  getting  the  outfit  ready  for  the  long  journey,  which  was 
expected  to  last  for  three  or  four  years.  The  stores  were  carried  on  one  large 
and  several  smaller  boats,  one  of  which  was  a  rowboat.  These  were 
towed  up  the  rivers  by  the  men,  horses,  and  mules;  the  animals  were  also 
used  for  hunting  and  ether  purposes. 

Early  in  the  following  spring,  when  the  ice  had  left  the  rivers,  the  ex- 
ploring party  started  for  this  unknown  region.  By  the  time  cold  weather 
set  in  they  had  reached  the  vicinity  of  the  mouth  of  Wood  River.  There 
they  spent  the  winter  in  the  hunting  ground  of  the  Mandan  Indians.  They 
were  more  hospitable  and  civilized  than  their  wild  brothers  further  west,  and 
treated  the  white  party  with  friendly  consideration. 

In  the  spring  of  the  following  year,  as  soon  as  they  could  safely  do  so,  they 
proceeded  up  the  Missouri  River,  making  further  explorations  of  the  stream 
and  country  to  the  land  of  tha  Snakes.  The  Indians,  after  receiving  the 
presents  which  Lieutenants  Lewis  and  Clark  gave  them,  showed  them  the 
passes  through  the  mountains.  Being  near  the  headwaters  of  the  Missouri 
River  the  party  went  into  camp  for  the  winter,  meantime  making  explora- 
tions of  the  surrounding  country  and  its  watercourses.  It  was  during  this 
winter  that  they  discovered  the  largest  tributaries  to  the  Missouri,  and  gave 
to  these  streams  the  names  by  which  they  are  now  known — Lewis  and 
Clark,  Jefferson,  Madison,  and  Gallatin  Forks,  being  named  in  honor  of 
themselves  and  the  distinguished  men  then  at  the  head  of  the  Government. 

The  next  spring,  under  the  guidance  of  some  Snake  Indians,  the  explorers 
were  piloted  through  the  passes  of  the  mountains,  and  crossed  to  the  head- 
waters of  the  Columbia  River,  making  the  trip  to  its  mouth,  where  they  re- 
mained during  that  winter.  Early  in  the  following  year  they  returned  over 
the  same  route,  again  passing  through  the  mountains,  and  arrived  safely  at 
St.  Louis  after  an  absence  of  three  years.  ' 

The  most  remarkable  part  of  this  journey  was  that  it  was  safely  accom- 
plished. That  the  party  were  not  all  massacred  by  the  Indians  through 
whose  territory  they  passed,  can  only  be  accounted  for  by  the  fact  that  the 
rivers  which  they  traveled,  formed  the  boundary  line  between  different 
nations  of  hostile  Indians,  and  that  no  war  party  happened  along  at  that 
time. 

To  this  expedition  the  country  was  greatly  indebted  for  information  re- 
garding the  newly-acquired  territory  along  the  rivers  which  they  passed. 
On  returning,  they  made  full  reports  to  the  President  of  their  achievements 
and  observations. 

This  expedition  was  as  important  in  its  results  as  it  was  remarkable  in  its 
execution.  For  fullness  and  accuracy  of  statement  in  relation  to  the  coun- 


400  TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE    INDIANS. 

try  traversed,  the  various  tribes  of  Indians  with  whom  they  came  in  contact, 
the  fertility  of  the  soil,  and  the  many  resources  of  the  region,  it  will  always 
remain  one  of  the  most  valuable  contributions  to  the  history  of  that  portion 
of  the  Northwest. 

After  the  report  was  published,  the  attention  of  the  people  of  the  East  was 
attracted  to  the  prospective  wealth  of  our  western  -empire.  From  this  time 
onward,  a  steady  flow  of  emigration  set  in  toward  the  getting  sun,  which 
within  half  a  century  reached  the  Pacific.  No  similar  instance  of  rapid  de- 
velopment is  known  to  history,  as  the  settlement  of  the  country  which  Lewis 
and  Clark  explored  less  than  a  century  ago. 

The  next  exploration  sent  out  by  the  Government  to  ascertain  the  value 
and  the  resources  of  its  newly-acquired  inland  territory,  was  in  1805.  Lieu- 
tenant Zebulon  N.  Pike,  with  a  party  of  twenty-five  or  thirty  soldiers,  and 
as  many  civilians,  went  up  the  Arkansas  River  to  make  an  exploration  of 
the  country  lying  adjacent  thereto.  Spain  claimed  this  country,  and  sent 
Spanish  troops  there,  who  fortified  themselves  and  captured  Lieutenant  Pike 
and  his  party,  holding  them  as  prisoners.  They  were  afterward  released, 
and  returned  without  having  accomplished  their  object. 

Subsequently,  about  1819  or  1820,  Captain  S.  H.  Long  was  sent  with  a 
body  of  troops  to  make  an  exploration  of  the  same  territory.  He,  I  believe, 
accomplished  more,  and  returning,  made  a  report  of  his  observations.  The 
two  most  prominent  peaks  in  Colorado  were  named  after  these  two  officers, 
Pike's  Peak  and  Long's  Peak. 

The  next  expedition  sent  into  this  territory  was  that  of  Captain  Bonne- 
ville,  of  the  American  Fur  Company.  He  went  for  the  purpose  of  trapping, 
but  he  also  made  some  valuable  explorations.  The  American  Fur  Com- 
pany, finding  this  country  a  rich  harvest  field,  established  forts  and  trading 
posts  at  various  places  that  were  most  accessible  to  their  trapping  grounds, 
which  were  near  the  rivers,  and  in  close  proximity  to  the  road  which  they 
made. 

During  this  time  an  active  trade  was  carried  on  by  caravans  between  the 
western  limit  of  civilization  and  these  outposts.  The  company  also  carried 
large  amounts  of  stores  to  trade  with  the  Indians,  as  well  as  for  the  main- 
tenance and  protection  of  their  own  men.  Many  battles  were  fought  be- 
tween the  caravans,  the  men  at  the  fortifications,  and  the  Indians.  For  a 
long  time  the  latter  had  possession  of  the  country  and  prevented  communica- 
tion between  these  fortifications  and  civilization.  The  country  at  that  time 
was  a  source  of  great  profit  to  the  Fur  Company,  as  the  rivers  and  streams 
were  filled  with  all  kinds  of  fur-bearing  animals. 

Gradually  settlers  crept  in,  and  as  the  country  became  more  or  less  in- 


WOMAN'S  BELT  MADE  OF  VARIOUS  COLORED  BEADS,  WITH  THONGS  FOE 
FASTENING  AROUND  THE  BODY. 


Twenty  Years  Among  Our  Hostile  Indians. 


Page  401 


402  TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 

habited,  Overland  route  travelers  were  less  and  less  molested.  It  was  by 
this  route  that  the  first  travelers  went  overland  to  Santa  Fe  and  California. 
After  this  the  prairie  schooner  (a  large  wagon  having  a  canvas  top  to  protect 
travelers  and  goods  from  the  weather),  with  its  ox-teams,  capable  of  carrying 
several  tons,  traveled  from  civilization  to  these  posts. 

The  Indians  resisted  the  encroachment  of  the  white  men  with  all  their 
power,  capturing  and  destroying  many  entire  trains  and  their  contents,  and 
killing  every  one  connected  with  them ;  but  as  the  business  was  exceedingly 
remunerative,  men  would  risk  any  danger  to  engage  in  it. 

The  difficulties  encountered  by  the  pioneers  were  almost  insurmountable, 
but  they  persevered  in  the  face  of  great  odds,  stimulated  by  the  attraction 
of  the  fabulous  wealth  of  rich  gold  and  silver  mines  that  were  said  to  exist 
in  the  far  West. 

Previous  to  1847  few  white  men  had  gone  west  of  the  Missouri  River. 
From  that  time  onward,  however,  the  tide  of  adventurous  travel  began  for 
what  was  known  as  the  Pike's  Peak  country.  Prospecting  for  gold  and 
silver  was  largely  carried  on  in  that  region,  and  the  stories  of  the  mineral 
wealth  which  this  territory  contained,  when  reported  in  the  East,  gave  a 
wonderful  impetus  to  western  settlement. 

The  gold  discoveries  of  the  Pike's  Peak  country  resulted  in  greatly  in- 
creasing the  tide  of  emigration  over  this  vast  stretch  of  territory ;  and  the 
adventurous  and  intrepid  people  who  composed  the  caravans  and  encoun- 
tered the  dangers  and  difficulties  of  the  routes,  were  naturally  calculated  to 
bring  a  spirit  of  enterprise  into  the  new  land.  They  embraced  all  sorts  of 
characters,  but  as  each  and  all  were  bent  on  seeking  fortunes  or  bettering 
their  condition,  it  resulted  in  the  rapid  settlement  of  the  country.  These 
new  settlers  were  men  of  daring  and  enterprise,  and  soon  established  numer- 
ous villages  and  communities,  with  lines  of  communication  between  them. 
As  the  settlements  grew  the  frontier  lines  were  strengthened.  The  red  man 
was  driven  back  and  forced  to  recognize  the  undisputed  right  of  all  people 
to  travel  from  one  point  to  another  through  his  country  without  molestation. 

The  next  exploration  of  the  western  country  was  that  undertaken  by 
Colonel  John  C.  Fremont.  The  object  of  his  expedition  was  to  discover,  if 
possible,  a  route  along  the  Platte  Valley,  and  through  the  mountains  to  Salt 
Lake  and  California.  This  expedition  consisted  of  sixty  sold  iers  and  civilians, 
and  a  sufficient  number  of  six-mule  teams  to  carry  the  outfit.  It  was  the 
best  equipped  of  any  expedition  sent  out  by  the  Government.  The  party  dis- 
covered and  made  what  was  afterward  the  Overland  Route  through  this  val- 
ley, and  through  the  mountains  by  way  of  South  Pass.  This  was  the  most 
direct  and  accessible  route  between  the  western  borders  of  civilization  and 


TWENTY    YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS.  403 

the  Pacific  coast,  and  was  afterward  traveled  by  the  Mormons,  the  Overland 
Stage,  and  the  Pony  Express. 

After  this  route  became  known,  there  followed  during  the  summer  months, 
an  almost  endless  stream  of  horse,  mule,  and  ox-teams  traveling  over  it, 
some  of  which  were  composed  of  freighters,  and  others  of  prospectors, 
miners,  or  settlers.  The  trains  were  frequently  attacked  by  bands  of  hostile 
Indians,  and  sometimes  were  entirely  annihilated,  as  the  bones  of  the  dead 
which  were  left  to  bleach  in  the  sun,  where  the  wolves  had  drawn  them 
after  eating  the  flesh,  bore  ghastly  testimony.  It  was  afterward  found 
necessary  by  the  military  to  organize  these  trains  so  that  they  coulu,  to  a 
certain  extent,  protect  themselves.  The  wagons  were  detained  until  there 
were  about  fifty  in  number,  with  a  sufficient  force  of  able-bodied  righting 
men  in  the  company  to  afford  protection.  A  captain  was  appointed  from 
among  the  travelers  by  the  military  commander  of  the  post  at  wl  <ch  the 
train  was  organized.  This  captain  received  a  written  document  from  the 
military,  giving  him  absolute  command  of  the  train,  with  authority  to  detail 
the  men  of  his  train  to  stand  guard  over  their  animals  while  grazing,  and 
over  the  camp  at  night.  A  company  organized  in  this  way  proceeded  with 
some  sort  of  discipline  and  with  a  good  prospect  of  reaching  the  next  mili- 
tary post.  Upon  its  arrival  the  captain  of  the  train  reported  to  the  military 
commander,  who  demanded  to  know  if  h«  had  kept  sufficient  guard  over 
his  animals  and  trains  by  day  and  night,  and  if  his  men  were  obedient,  and 
did  their  duty  promptly.  If  not,  the  commanding  officer  of  the  troops  read 
a  severe  lecture  to  the  delinquent  or  disobedient  individual,  or  replaced  him 
by  another  man,  when  the  train  resumed  its  journey.  This  was  purely  arbi- 
trary on  the  part  of  the  military,  but  it  had  become  an  absolute  necessity 
to  compel  travelers  to  exercise  at  least  ordinary  precaution  for  their  own 
safety.  Frequently,  when  an  attack  was  made  on  an  unprotected  train  by 
Indians,  the  military  were  compelled  to  go  to  that  point  and  relieve  the  dis- 
tressed party,  often  having  to  care  for  of  a  number  of  wounded  until  they 
recovered  or  died. 

After  the  action  of  the  military  in  organizing  the  wagons  into  companies, 
fewer  were  attacked  and  destroyed  by  the  Indians.  The  wagons  of  the  com- 
panies thus  organized  traveled  close  together,  and  the  men  were  always  in  a 
position  to  defend  themselves.  After  a  few  of  these  companies  had  been 
attacked,  and  had  beaten  off  the  Indians  with  severe  loss,  the  latter  found 
that  the  travelers  were  generally  able  to  take  care  of  themselves,  and  a 
knowledge  of  this  fact  soon  spread  among  them,  when  the  attacks  became 
less  frequent. 

An  ox-train  fully  equipped  for   crossing  the  country  consisted  of  from 


404  TWENTY   YEARS    AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE    INDIANS. 

twenty  to  twenty- five  large  ox- wagons,  each  drawn  by  from  six  to  twelve 
yoke  of  cattle,  with  a  number  of  extra  oxen  to  supply  the  place  of  those  that 
might  become  disabled.  There  was  also  an  extra  wagon  which  carried  the 
outfit  and  provisions  for  the  trainmen.  These  wagons  extended  a  long  dis- 
tance over  the  prairie  and  along  the  mountain  roads,  and  were  easy  prey 
for  Indians  lying  in  ambush  to  attack  them.  The  trains  made  several  stops 
each  day ;  at  each  stop  the  wagons  were  formed  into  a  pear-shaped  corral, 
the  pole  of  each  wagon  pointing  outward,  and  the  hub  of  the  fore  wheel  of 
the  next  wagon  set  close  to  the  hind  wheel  of  the  wagon  just  ahead  of  it. 
The  wagons  were  so  placed  as  to  form  an  enclosure  sufficiently  large  to  hold 
the  entire  number  of  animals  belonging  to  the  train.  Indians  rarely 
attacked  a  train  when  in  corral.  It  was  a  means  of  fortification  that  enabled 
the  trainmen  to  defend  themselves  and  their  animals  against  great  odds. 
When  trains  were  attacked  while  moving,  they  immediately  went  into 
corral,  and  if  the  corral  could  be  formed  in  time  the  Indians  usually  retired. 
Sometimes  trains  were  kept  in  corral  by  an  attacking  party  for  days  at  a 
time.  The  entire  number  of  animals  for  one  of  these  large  ox-trains,  includ- 
ing extras,  sometimes  amounted  to  from  three  hundred  to  three  hundred  and 
fifty  cattle,  and  the  number  of  trainmen  required  sometimes  from  forty  to 
fifty.  The  heavily-laden  wagons  were  capable  of  making  from  twelve  to 
fifteen  miles  a  day.  It  required  weeks  and  sometimes  months  for  these  slow 
trains  to  move  between  far  distant  points,  across  this  immense  territory. 

Each  wagon  had  its  own  ox-driver,  or,  as  they  were  called,  "bull-whack- 
ers." The  whip  used  by  the  bull -whackers  had  a  short  staff  not  over  one 
and  one-half  or  two  feet  in  length,  to  this  was  fastened  the  lash,  which  was 
from  fifteen  to  twenty-five  feet  in  length,  being  very  thick  a  few  feet  from 
the  end  of  the  staff  and  tapering  down  to  a  fine  point.  This  was  dragged 
behind  them  on  the  ground,  at  full  length,  and  in  the  hands  of  a  good  driver 
it  was  a  terrible  instrument  of  punishment.  The  bull-whacker  could  take  the 
staff  in  his  two  hands  and  giving  the  lash  one  or  two  skillful  twirls  around 
his  head,  then  with  a  blow  strike  an  ox  on  any  spot  he  aimed  at,  cutting  the 
hide  through  as  if  with  a  knife. 

An  instance  occurred  on  the  Sweetwater  River  near  the  Devil's  Gap, 
which  will  illustrate  the  bull-whacker's  skill  in  the  use  of  his  whip.  A 
train  of  ox-wagons  while  passing  this  point  stopped  as  usual  to  rest.  Some 
Indians  who  had  been  watching  the  train  at  a  distance,  at  length  made  up 
their  minds  to  visit  it.  One  loafer  Indian,  more  inquisitive  than  he  should 
have  been,  mounted  the  pole  of  the  wagon,  and,  as  usual,  began  taking 
things  therefrom.  At  last  he  came  to  the  bag  that  contained  the  ox-driver's 
outfit  this  the  Indian  was  proceeding  to  appropriate  to  his  own  use.  The 


TWENTY   YEARS  AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS.  405 

teamster,  who  had  been  watching  him,  concluded  not  to  be  robbed.  Step- 
ping back  to  the  right  distance  the  driver  gave  his  whip  two  or  three  rapid 
twirls  around  his  head  and  aimed  a  blow  at  the  Indian's  back.  The  Indian 
was  naked,  except  bis  breechcloth,  and  the  end  of  the  lash  struck  him  just 
below  the  shoulder  blade,  cutting  a  gash,  ten  to  twelve  inches  in  length, 
straight  down  his  back.  The  whip  cut  entirely  through  the  flesh  to  the  bone 
for  the  whole  length,  and  could  not  have  been  more  neatly  done  with  a  sharp 
knife.  The  Indian  gave  a  howl,  dropped  the  bag,  jumped  to  the  ground, 
and,  mad  with  pain  and  rage,  prepared  to  attack  the  bull-whacker.  The 
latter  immediately  placed  his  whip  in  position  again,  preparing  to  strike. 
Seeing  this,  and  having  a  painful  realization  of  what  he  had  just  received, 
the  Indian  retreated. 

This  act  came  near  costing  the  lives  of  the  entire  train.  My  command 
happened  to  arrive  shortly  afterward,  or  there  might  have  been  serious 
trouble.  We  had  great  difficulty  in  patching  up  peace  between  the  Indians 
and  the  trainmen,  which  was  done  by  presenting  them  such  articles  as  the 
trainmen  and  military  could  spare. 

Ox-teams  were  used  in  these  trains  because  the  animals  were  patient  and 
faithful,  could  draw  heavy  loads,  and  readily  subsist  on  the  grasses  along 
the  route.  Moreover,  Indians  could  not  stampede  them,  and  did  not  look 
upon  them  with  such  envious  eyes  as  they  did  on  the  fine  horses  and  mules 
that  were  afterward  used  in  this  service. 

It  required  but  a  short  time  for  the  enterprising  mining  towns  of  the  far 
West  to  discover  that  transportation  by  ox-teams  was  entirely  too  slow, 
when  four  and  six-horses  or  mule  teams  superseded  them.  On  these  fine 
teams  the  red  men  made  repeated  attacks,  often  capturing  the  animals  of  the 
entire  trains ;  nevertheless,  horse  and  mule  trains  continued  in  this  service 
until  the  completion  of  the  Union  Pacific  Railroad. 


406  TWENTY   YEARS  AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 


CHAPTER  XLVIII. 

THE  AMERICAN  TROOPER  AS   AN  INDIAN    FIGHTER— PERILOUS    SERVICE- 
SCOUTING  FOR  INDIANS. 

Fighting  Indians  with  Cannon — Their  Amazement  at  and  Dread  of  Shells — An  Inscrutable 
Mystery — Fighting  them  after  their  own  Fashion — The  best  Soldiers  in  the  World 
— Hand-to-Hand  Conflict  with  the  Indians — Fighting  on  Foot — Keeping  with  the 
Command — Blowing  their  own  Brains  Out — As  Mild  as  a  Child  but  as  full  of  Fight 
as  a  Tiger — Fighting  Indians  Day  by  Day — Sleepless  Nights — On  a  Scout — How  the 
Trooper  Slept  at  Night — A  Duel  between  two  Soldiers — A  Sad  Incident — After  the 
Duel — Toes,  Fingers,  and  Hands  Frozen — Animals  Frozen  to  Death — Unwelcome 
Night  Visitors — Grizzly  Bears  in  Camp — The  Despised  Wolves — Cunning  and  Dan- 
gerous Animals — Eating  Boots  and  Saddles — Eating  their  Companions  Alive — 
Horses  and  Mules  Crazed  by  Fright. 

OP  all  the  services  required  of  the  trooper  in  the  military  service  of  the 
United  States,  there  was  none  that  could  compare  with,  or  even  approach, 
that  which  was  required  of  him  in  fighting  hostile  Indians.  It  was  a  serv- 
ice so  unlike  any  other  that  history  fails  to  furnish  a  comparison. 

It  was  necessary  that  the  soldiers  should  fight  these  wily  savages  after 
their  own  peculiar  mode  of  warfare,  on  their  own  ground,  and  at  their  own 
time.  Preparations  could  not  be  made  in  advance  for  these  fights,  and  the 
troops  had  to  be  in  readiness  to  act  on  the  aggressive  or  defensive  at  a 
moment's  notice.  They  had  to  be  ready  to  accept  defeat,  and  to  protect 
themselves  instantly  under  all  circumstances;  otherwise  massacre  and  anni- 
hilation, which  so  often  occurred,  were  sure  to  follow. 

In  Indian  fighting,  the  cavalry  alone  were  nearly  always  used,  for  infan- 
try could  not  reach  the  scene  in  time  to  give  the  savages  battle.  Artillery 
was  rarely  used,  and  when  it  was,  small  field  pieces,  or  mountain  howitzers 
only  were  called  into  requisition.  These  howitzers  were  light  and  could  be 
drawn  by  two  horses  or  mules,  and  when  in  the  mountains  could  be  carried 
on  the  back  of  pack  animals.  But  even  these  were  usually  of  little  effective- 
ness; for  in  an  Indian  fight  the  conflict  was  constantly  changing  from  one 
point  to  another  with  great  rapidity,  and  by  the  time  the  pieces  were  un lim- 
bered and  placed  in  position  the  scene  of  the  battle  might  be  removed  some 
distance.  When  the  Indians  discovered  that  the  troops  had  field  pieces  and 
were  using  shell  or  case  shot,  they  quickly  retreated  behind  a  hill  or  the 
most  convenient  shelter,  remaining  there  until  the  guns  became  silent. 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS.  407 

They  were  greatly  surprised  that  the  troops  could  fire  a  shot  which  would 
drop  among  them,  and  after  remaining  quiet  for  a  short  time  suddenly  ex- 
plode with  such  disastrous  results.. 

To  be  good  Indian  fighters  the  troops  had  not  only  to  act  independently, 
and  fight  after  Indian  fashion,  as  well  as  secure  every  advantage  possible, 
but  had  also  to  preserve  their  military  cohesion,  and  obey  the  com- 
mands of  their  officers  according  to  military  tactics.  Each  trooper  was  ex- 
pected to  act  at  once  as  an  individual,  as  well  as  a  part  of  the  whole  com- 
mand. When  fighting  Indians  he  should  be  a  mixture  of  white  man  and 
Indian  together;  he  must  have  the  courage  of  the  Indian,  and  the  coolness 
and  judgment  of  the  white  man.  It  was  absolutely  necessary  that  he 
never  be  out  generaled  by  the  wily  red  men,  and  under  no  circumstances 
must  he  permit  his  ammunition  and  strength  to  be  wasted  without  effect. 
Should  it  be  necessary  at  any  time  for  him  to  engage  in  a  hand-to-hand  con- 
flict with  one  or  more  of  the  savages,  he  must  do  so  without  hesitation  or 
command.  It  was  also  of  vital  importance  that  he  be  a  good  shot; 
for  his  entire  supply  of  ammunition  was  generally  on  his  person,  and  he  was 
supposed  to  make  every  shot  tell.  He  should  also  possess  great  endurance 
and  ability  to  go  for  a  long  time  without  food,  water,  or  sleep.  It  was  essen- 
tial that  he  be  an  experienced  horseman,  and  know  just  when  to  use 
the  bit  and  spur,  as  every  move  made  in  battle  against  the  warriors  was  the 
result  of  some  manoeuvre  on.  their  part,  and  had  to  be  met  instantly  by  the 
trooper. ' 

In  fighting  Indians  it  was  often  necessary  for  the  troops  to  pursue  and 
overtake  them  in  order  to  give  them  battle:  and  when  the  Indians  allowed 
themselves  to  be  overtaken  they  were  generally  ready  for  the  fight,  and  in 
such  strong  position  that  the  troops  were  at  a  great  disadvantage. 

After  traveling  a  long  distance,  and  undergoing  great  hardships,  the 
troops  generally  arrived  at  the  battle  ground  in  an  exhausted  condition,  both 
men  and  animals  being  much  reduced  in  strength  from  lack  of  sufficient  rest 
and  food.  Hence  they  were  necessarily  at  a  great  disadvantage  and  were 
handicapped  from  the  start.  Again,  the  red  man  had  two  or  three  fresh 
horses  with  which  to  fight,  whereas  the  trooper  had  but  one,  which  was  often 
jaded  or  worn  out  when  the  time  and  place  to  fight  were  at  hand.  Should 
his  horse  become  disabled  or  be  killed,  the  trooper  must  keep  with  the  re- 
mainder of  the  command,  fighting  on  foot,  and  under  no  circumstances  permit 
himself  to  become  separated  from  it;  if  he  did,  there  was  but  one  thing 
left  for  him,  namely,  to  blow  out  his  brains,  for  it  was  tacitly  understood  by 
all  troopers  that  they  must  never  allow  themselves  to  be  captured  alive  by 
Indians. 


408  TWENTY   YEARS  AMONG  OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 

In  no  other  military  service  in  the  world  were  soldiers  called  upon  to  un- 
dergo the  hardships  that  the  American  troopers  did  in  Indian  campaigns; 
but  thanks  to  the  advance  of  civilization  these  campaigns  are  now  things  of 
the  past. 

Our  Civil  War  demonstrated  the  fact,  beyond  all  question,  that  the  Ameri- 
can can  be  taken  from  almost  any  walk  in  civilized  life  and  made  into  the 
best  soldier,  in  the  shortest  time,  of  any  man  in  the  world.  The  average 
American  is  so  intelligent,  and  has  such  a  high  sense  of  duty,  that  he  has 
been  known  in  many  instances  during  our  Civil  War  to  be  equal,  as  a 
soldier,  to  the  most  hardened  campaigner,  in  less  than  sixty  days.  Recruits 
who  had  been  in  service  not  more  than  two  weeks,  have  been  known  to  con- 
duct themselves  in  battle  with  the  greatest  self-possession,  obeying  every 
command  as  promptly  as  though  having  seen  years  of  service. 

The  most  important  requirement  to  make  an  efficient  soldier  of  an  Ameri- 
can, is  to  teach  him  to  cook  properly.  No  matter  how  good  his  rations 
may  be,  if  not  properly  cooked,  disease  is  sure  to  follow;  the  sick  must  be 
cared  for  by  the  able-bodied,  which  reduces  the  fighting  force.  Every 
soldier  must  take  his  turn  in  cooking  for  hjs  mess;  first  commencing  as  a 
scullion  for  a  week,  the  following  week  he  is  second  cook,  the  next  raises 
him  to  the  dignity  of  chief  cook.  Should  he  not  properly  fulfil  this  import- 
ant position,  the  members  of  his  mess,  and  officers  are  liable  to  make  it  un- 
comfortable for  him. 

In  well-conducted  armies  it  is  the  duty  of  the  company  officers  to  attend 
each  meal  of  the  troops,  and  see  that  the  food  has  been  properly  prepared. 

Ever}7  boy,  no  matter  what  his  station  in  life  may  be,  should  be  taught 
the  art  of  cooking,  for  upon  this  not  only  his  health,  but  his  finances  are  kept 
in  good  condition. 

The  American  soldier  enters  the  army  voluntarily,  and  at  once  applies 
himself  to  become  proficient  in  his  new  profession;  he  is  subordinate,  yet  in- 
dependent; he  is  docile,  yet  courageous;  he  is  as  mild  as  a  child,  and  as  full 
of  figbt  as  a  tiger.  There  are  no  requirements  asked  of  him  that  he  is  not 
always  ready  to  comply  with;  exposure  and  privations  hav«  no  terrors'  for 
him.  His  officers  are  not  compelled  to  drive  him  continually,  but  is  him- 
self anxious  to  become  a  leader. 

There  is  no  army  in  the  world  in  which  the  officers  and  soldiers  are  in 
such  close  touch  as  in  ours.  The  military  discipline  is  perfect;  but  tbere  is 
no  starched  stiffness  on  the  part  of  the  officers  toward  their  men,  and  no  lack 
of  confidence  in  their  officers  on  the  part  of  the  soldiers.  Both  are  voluntarily 
doing  their  duty,  and  each  instinctively  understands  the  other.  Again,  in 
our  army  the  superiority  of  the  officers  to  the  men  of  their  command  is 


TWENTY   YEARS  AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS.  409 

purely  military.  The  soldier  knows  and  feels  this.  He  knows  that  officers 
hold  their  places  by  virtue  of  authority,  obtained  by  capacity  for  their  posi- 
tion; not  as  in  the  armies  of  the  Old  World,  by  virtue  of  so-called  noble 
lineage,  social  caste,  or  wealth.  Hence  in  our  army  there  is  not,  as  a  rule, 
arrogance  or  superciliousness  on  the  part  of  an  officer  toward  a  soldier,  or 
enmity  or  jealousy  on  the  part  of  a  soldier  toward  an  officer. 

To  see  the  American  trooper  on  the  plains  in  a  hostile  Indian  country, 
after  interminable  marches,  wearied  and  reduced  by  exposure,  protracted 
work,  and  insufficient  food,  with  his  worn-out  rusty  uniform,  one  would  at 
first  glance  write  him  down  as  a  slouchy  kind  of  soldier.  And  this  judg- 
ment would  be  correct  if  one  compared  him  to  the  gayly  bedizened  and  dash- 
ing French  hussar,  the  prim  and  strait-laced  British  cavalryman,  or  the  pre- 
cise and  machine-like  German  Ulhan,  when  on  a  field  review.  But  wait, 
and  you  will  see  in  the  American  trooper  something  that  can  never  be  seen  in 
any  other.  The  bugle  sounds;  and  these  apparently  ungraceful  troopers,  after 
long  marches,  and  a  few  hours  of  sleep,  perhaps  on  the  wet  prairie  or  on  the 
snow-covered  ground,  will  swing  into  their  saddles  with  a  motion  that  daz- 
zles the  eye  by  its  mechanical  precision.  There  they  sit  motionless;  and 
scanning  their  faces  one  will  observe  that  unmistakable  look  of  intelligence 
which  is  not  the  result  of  discipline,  but  of  education,  and  which  is  so  notice- 
ably absent  in  the  automatic  soldiers  of  the  Old  World.  When  the  bugle 
sounds  again  mark  the  soldierly  ease  and  elegant  grace  with  which  these 
troopers  dash  off,  though  they  have  been  weeks  on  the  march,  half-starved 
meanwhile,  fighting  Indians  day  by  day,  passing  sleepless  nights,  enduring 
every  kind  of  weather  and  privations,  undaunted  by  pitiless  frosts  and 
snows,  the  dust  of  the  great  plains,  or  the  terrible  thirst  of  the  desolate 
alkali  deserts,  and  one  must  say,  in  view  of  their  great  endurance,  their 
ever  cheerful  readiness  and  easy  but  perfect  discipline,  that  American 
soldiers  are  the  best  in  the  world.  It  is  owing  to  these  qualifications  that 
we  had  in  them  such  excellent  Indian  fighters.  And  I  venture  to  say  that 
nowhere  in  the  armies  of  the  Old  World  could  a  body  of  troops  be  selected, 
of  equal  numbers,  who  would  compare  at  all  favorably  with  them  in  Indian 
campaigns. 

In  the  Indian  country,  when  a  detachment  of  cavalry  went  on  a  scouting 
expedition,  the  men  were  always  reduced  to  light  marching  order.  Neither 
the  officers,  troops,  nor  guides  were  provided  with  shelter  of  any  kind. 
Sometimes,  if  the  scout  was  to  be  a  long  one,  they  might  have  an  extra  shirt, 
a  towel,  a  piece  of  common  soap  and  a  tooth  brush,  but  these  were  the  limit 
of  extra  baggage.  Their  beds  consisted  of  the  saddle  blanket  and  a  rubber 
poncho  spread  on  the  ground.  Sometimes  two  or  three  troopers  bunked 


410 


TWENTY    YEARS  AMONG  OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 


together  at  night,  and  if  the  weather  was  clear  two  ponchos  were  placed  on 
the  ground,  thus  having  two  or  three  blankets  with  which  to  cover  them- 
selves. In  this  wav  they  securer)  the  best  shelter  possible  under  the  circum- 


LONE  HORN. 


stances.  When  camp  was  made  for  the  night,  everything  was  left  as  com- 
fortable and  secure  as  possible,  and  the  most  favorable  position  was  selected 
to  prevent  annoyance  from  unwelcome  visitors  of  all  kinds. 

Among  the  many  hardships  borne  by  the  American  soldier  at  that  time,  was 


TWENTY   YEARS  AMONG  OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS.  411 

the  neglect  of  the  Government  to  furnish  suitable  clothing  for  those  stationed 
in  different  latitudes.  For  thoee  serving  in  Texas  in  an  almost  tropical 
region  the  clothing  was  the  same,  both  in  quality  and  quantity,  as  that 
issued  to  the  troops  stationed  in  the  cold  regions  on  the  borders  of  the  Brit- 
ish possessions.  There  were  no  warm  gloves,  wraps,  or  coverings  for  the 
neck  or  ears  furnished  to  the  troops  during  long  winter  campaigns;  neither 
were  there  extra  supplies  of  blankets  nor  an  extra  quantity  of  rations.  The 
clothing  and  rations  were  the  same  the  year  round;  during  winter  cam- 
paigns against  the  Indians  both  men  and  animals  often  suffered  from  an 
insufficient  supply  of  both  food  and  clothing.  At  night,  when  near  the 
enemy,  no  fires  could  be  built,  and  when  the  cold  was  severe,  the  suffering  of 
the  troops  and  animals  was  intense.  On  these  campaigns  the  men's  fingers 
and  hands  were  frequently  frozen,  and  it  was  not  uncommon  for  the  animals 
to  freeze  to  death  where  they  were  fastened.  The  poor  beasts  were  com- 
pelled to  live  on  grass,  which  they  could  only  obtain  by  pawing  away  the 
snow  that  covered  it.  In  Texas,  during  the  extreme  heat  of  summer,  with 
the  same  regulation  clothing,  both  troops  and  animals  suffered  greatly  from 
the  heat.  Even  the  medical  supplies  furnished  by  the  Government  for  cam- 
paigns were  limited,  consisting  only  of  a  few  articles  such  as  each  officer 
could  administer  to  his  men.  The  hardships  endured  by  the  troops  engaged 
in  fighting  the  Indians  were  thus  greatly  multiplied.  When  transportation 
was  furnished  for  a  campaign  it  was  always  limited  in  amount.  The  con- 
sequence was,  that  in  a  short  time  the  pack  animals  broke  down,  or  their 
backs  became  a  mass  of  sores,  thus  compelling  the  command  to  abandon  a 
portion  of  its  limited  supplies. 

The  one  thing  that  was  never  neglected  for  an  instant  by  the  troops  in  this 
wild  country,  was  their  arms.  No  matter  how  severe  the  weather,  these 
were  always  protected  and  kept  in  good  firing  condition.  When  sleeping  on 
the  ground  in  water  or  snow  the  arms  always  received  first  attention,  and 
were  stowed  away  in  the  best  possible  manner  to  protect  them.  The  first 
thing  a  trooper  did,  on  awakening,  was  to  buckle  his  belt  with  his  pistols  on 
it  around  his  waist,  and  then  sling  his  carbine  (attaching  it  to  a  strap  over 
his  shoulder).  This  done,  he  immediately  examined  his  arms,  and  put  them 
in  the  best  firing  condition,  for  on  these  his  life  depended.  Arms  were  not 
only  used  as  a  protection  against  the  enemy,  but  also  in  procuring  food. 

On  an  Indian  campaign,  when  pack  mules  were  used,  the  supply  of  com- 
missary stores  was  limited.  The  command  lived  largely  on  the  wild  meats 
of  the  country,  and  these  were  secured  by  the  troops  themselves.  This  was 
done  by  selecting  the  best  hunter  each  day  to  secure  game  when  any  was 
discovered  in  the  vicinity  of  the  camp. 


412  TWENTY   YEARS  AMONG  OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 

On  rare  occasions  misunderstandings  and  quarrels  occurred  among  the 
troops,  but  they  were  almost  always  settled  amicably.  I  recall  an  instance, 
though,  a  sad  one,  that  deserves  notice,  as  illustrating  the  quickness  and 
expertness  of  the  American  soldier  in  the  use  of  his  arms.  Some  troopers 
were  playing  cards  on  a  poncho  spread  on  the  ground.  Two  of  them  quar- 
reled over  the  game,  one  drew  his  revolver  and  shot  his  comrade  through  the 
top  of  the  shoulder.  The  other  immediately  drew  his  pistol,  remarking, 
"Ah,  you  wanted  to  wing  me,  did  you?"  whereupon  he  fired  at  his  com- 
rade's right  elbow,  shattering  it  to  pieces;  down  went  his  right  arm,  the 
six-shooter  falling  to  the  ground.  Quick  as  thought  the  wounded  man  drew 
the  other  revolver  from  the  holster  with  the  left  hand  and  fired  with  intent 
to  kill.  The  bullet  made  a  severe  scalp  wound.  Again  his  antagonist  fired 
at  the  other  elbow  of  his  friend,  breaking  the  joint,  which  put  an  end  to  the 
firing.  The  man  with  his  two  elbows  shattered  remarked,  "You  have  made 
a  fine  soldier  of  me."  To  which  his  comrade  replied,  "That  was  the  only 
way  I  had  to  stop  you,  for  if  you  had  killed  me  you  would  have  been  sorry 
for  it  all  your  life."  The  army  surgeon  in  dressing  the  wounded  man's 
arms,  set  the  right  arm  at  right  angles  across  his  body,  and  the  left  almost 
straight;  in  this  position  they  remained  during  the  rest  of  his  life.  The 
trouble  began  and  ended  in  shorter  time  than  it  takes  to  tell ;  both  men 
were  devoted  friends  before  and  after  the  occurrence. 

Another  trouble  that  men  and  animals  had  to  contend  with  in  the  elevated 
portions  of  that  country  was  the  rarity  of  the  atmosphere.  It  required 
some  time  to  become  accustomed  to  the  thin  air  of  those  high  altitudes. 
Those  who  were  not  accustomed  to  it  constantly  complained  of  being  unable 
to  get  their  breath.  They  could  not  undergo  severe  physical  exertion  with- 
out becoming  greatly  distressed,  and  it  usually  required  from  eighteen 
months  to  two  years  before  this  was  overcome. 

Another  foe  was  the  Rocky  Mountain  fever.  This  was  a  peculiar  form  of 
low  fever  that  attacked  those  not  accustomed  to  the  mountain  air  and  pros- 
trated them  for  a  long  time.  After  partly  recovering  from  it,  it  often  assailed 
the  patient  again  and  again,  sometimes  attacking  him  in  the  feet.  When 
this  occurred  the  patient  could  not  bear  even  the  weight  of  a  sheet  on  any 
portion  of  his  feet,  as  he  was  in  constant  pain.  The  feet  often  swelling  to 
almost  double  their  natural  size,  and  as  recovery  was  slow,  a  trooper  once 
taken  with  this  disease  was  unfit  for  service  for  a  long  time. 

It  frequently  happened  that  the  camp  was  disturbed  by  other  than  human 
enemies.  When  fresh  meat  had  been  cooked,  visits  were  to  be  expected  from 
all  sorts  of  carnivorous  animals.  Sometimes  a  grizzly  bear  made  his  appear- 
ance, seizing  and  carrying  off  the  carcass  of  an  antelope,  deer  or  piece  of 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG  OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 


413 


buffalo.  If  he  could  be  driven  from  camp  without  firing  a  shot  it  was  always 
done,  for  should  a  shot  be  tired  in  the  death  like  stillness  which  prevailed  at 
all  times  in  that  country,  it  could  be  heard  for  a  long  distance  and  might 
disclose  to  the  hostiles  the  whereabouts  of  the  troops. 

The  regular  visitors  in  every  camp  were  wolves,  both  gray  and  coyote. 
The  latter  were  skulking  beasts  and  sitting  at  a  safe  distance  from  the  camp, 
would  utter  such  unearthly  howls  that  one  not  accustomed  to  hearing  them 
imagined  from  the  noise  of  three  or  four  that  there  were  hundreds  present. 
Should  there  be  from  fifteen  to  twenty  gathered  about  the  camp,  their  howls 
prevented  the  troops  from  sleeping  that  night.  They  were  cunning  thieves 
and  arrant  cowards,  and  were  justly  despised  by  every  person  in  that  coun- 
try. With  the  setting  in  of  cold  weather  these  famished  animals  became 
very  bold,  and  coming  into  camp  would  eat  a  pair  of  boots,  the  leather  of  a 
saddle,  or  anything  they  could  find  to  appease  their  voracious  appetites. 


PRAIRIE  WOLVES — COYOTES. 


The  large  gray  wolf  was  another  and  more  dangerous  animal.  He  was  a 
cunning,  skulking  thief,  and  approached  the  camp  by  stealth,  carrying  away 
whatever  he  could  get  hold  of.  In  winter,  when  these  animals  were  great 
sufferers  from  hunger,  they  became  very  vicious,  and  a  pack  of  them  often 
attacked  cattle  and  horses,  killing  and  devouring  them.  At  times  old 
hunters  and  trappers  shot  one  of  the  pack,  when  the  rest,  crazed  by  the  smell 
of  blood,  proceeded  to  eat  their  companion  alive. 

The  skins  of  both  kinds  of  wolves  were  sent  East  and  made  into  clothing, 
robes,  mats,  or  ornaments.  Could  some  of  my  readers  who  delight  in  hav- 
ing wolf  skins  around  them,  know  the  habits  of  these  miserable  animals,  I 
fancy  they  would  discard  them  at  once;  for  the  dirty  beasts  crawled  into  the 
carcass  of  an  animal  which  had  been  dead  for  a  long  time,  and  once  inside 
of  it,  rolled  over  and  over  in  the  putrid  mass,  saturating  their  hair  as  much 


414 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 


as  possible  with  the  filthy  and  rotten  inside  of  the  dead  animal.  It  was  not 
uncommon  for  one  accustomed  to  it,  to  locate  the  presence  of  these  animals 
by  their  disgusting  odor. 

The  most  important  trouble  for  troops  to  guard  against  was  a  stampede  of 
the  animals,  as  the  Indians  always  tried  to  effect  this  by  surprising  and 
frightening  them  when  tied  or  picketed. 

The  stampede  of  a  large  number  of  animals  was  a  frightful  thing.  When 
once' a  herd  of  horses  and  mules  became  thoroughly  frightened  they  seemed 


GRAY  WOLF. 


to  lose  their  senses,  and  became  entirely  unmanageable.  In  their  flight  they 
ran  over  anything  that  lay  in  their  path.  They  did  not  seem  for  an  instant 
to  recognize  any  obstacle  in  their  way.  They  often  ran  over  an  embank- 
ment, or  up  against  it,  nearly  dashing  themselves  to  pieces;  or  rushed  wildly 
into  a  stream  and  drowned ;  or  into  the  mud  and  mire  and  became  hopelessly 
swamped.  The  farther  they  ran  the  more  frightened  they  became.  The 
only  way  to  stop  a  stampede  was  to  cause  the  animals  to  run  in  a  circle;  in 
this  way  they  ran  until  exhausted  or  cooled  down. 

I  once  saw  a  stampede  of  a  herd  of  horses  and  mules  which  had  been 
picketed  after  the  usual  army  fashion,  by  lariat  ropes  fifteen  to  twenty  feet  in 
length  attached  to  the  halter  of  each  animal.  The  end  of  the  lariat  rope  was 
attached  to  a  picket  pin  made  of  round  iron,  about  eighteen  inches  in  length, 
sharp  at  the  point,  and  having  a  pear-shaped  belly  about  three-quarters  of  a 
inch  in  diameter  at  the  thickest  part.  At  the  top  it  had  a  ball-like  head 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG  OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS.  415 

with  an  iron  swivel  attached  to  it,  shaped  like  the  figure  8.  To  this  was 
attached  the  lariat,  which  enabled  the  animal  to  graze  the  full  length  of  the 
rope  in  a  circle  around  the  pin.  The  picket  pins  were  driven  into  the  ground 
the  full  length,  when  it  was  difficult  to  withdraw  them  from  the  solid  earth. 

The  animals  became  greatly  frightened  from  some  cause,  ran  the  length 
of  the  rope,  threw  themselves  against  the  picket  pins  with  all  their  strength, 
and,  jerking  them  from  the  ground,  ran  at  the  top  of  their  speed.  It  was 
but  a  minute  before  the  earth  trembled  under  the  hoofs  of  the  frightened 
beasts.  The  air  was  filled  with  dust,  and  the  roar  of  the  stampede  could  be 
beard  a  long  distance.  The  picket  pins  which  were  attached  to  the  ropes 
flew  all  about  the  flying  herd,  and  striking  the  ground  with  great  force 
rebounded,  the  sharp  points  of  some  of  them  wounding  many  of  the  animals 
severely.  This  stampede  continued  for  a  distance  of  fully  ten  miles  before 
they  were  rounded  up.  The  troops  followed  on  such  horses  as  they  coulo 
secure,  but  were  careful  not  to  get  hit  by  the  flying  picket  pins. 

After  securing  the  herd  many  of  the  animals  were  found  to  be  so  badly 
wounded  as  to  be  unfit  for  further  service.  On  going  back  over  the  ground 
many  dead  and  wounded  animals  were  found  strewn  along  the  entire  dis- 
tance. Many  of  those  that  were  brought  back  were  more  or  less  injured. 
This  stampede  left  the  temper  of  the  herd  in  such  a  state  that  they  never 
could  be  picketed  again  without  being  hobbled  or  side-lined. 


416  TWENTY   YEARS  AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 


CHAPTER    XLIX. 

THE  OVERLAND    STAGE— DESPERADOES    AND    ROAD    AGENTS— AN    INDIAN 
ATTACK  THAT  COVERED  TWELVE  HUNDRED  MILES. 

The  Overland  Stage  Line— How  the  Line  was  Operated— A  Hundred  Miles  in  Twenty  four 
Hours — Its  Extraordinary  Service— Prey  for  Indians  and  Road  Agents — Frequent 
Raids  on  the  Stage  Stations— Looting  the  Stages— Road  Agents — Jules  Bevi  and  his 
Tragic  Death — Killed  by  the  Noted  Desperado,  Alfred  Slade — Cutting  Off  his  Vic- 
tim's Ears— Nailing  One  of  them  to  the  Door — Dangling  the  Other  from  his  Watch 
Chain — The  Worst  White  Man  in  that  Country — His  Misdeeds — Hie  Visit  to  my 
Camp — A  Heeded  Warning — In  the  Hands  of  the  Vigilantes — Execution  of  Slade 
and  his  two  Comrades — Dying  like  Cowards — A  Massacre  that  Extended  Twelve 
Hundred  Miles — The  Wonderful  Mirage. 

THE  authorities  at  Washington  had  been  urgently  appealed  to  for  an 
overland  mail  service  to  the  Pacific  Coast,  and  this  stage  line  was  the  result. 
Tho  Overland  Stage  Line  was  started  about  1859. 

The  eastern  end  of  the  line  began  at  St.  Joseph,  Missouri,  and  ran  to  Sacra- 
mento, California,  a  distance  of  nearly  two  thousand  miles.  About  twenty- 
five  days  were  required  to  make  the  trip.  At  first  the  service  was  semi- 
monthly, then  weekly,  then  semi-weekly,  then  tii-weekly,  and  after  coming 
under  Ben  Holiday's  management  was  made  daily. 

The  stages  were  what  was  known  as  thorough  brace  coaches,  strong,  dur- 
able and  well  suited  for  this  service  and  built  in  Concord,  N.  H.,  these  were 
drawn  by  four,  six,  or  eight  good  horses  or  mules.  Each  stage  had  a  boot 
in  front  and  rear  for  baggage  and  mail,  the  express  and  mail  matter  being 
always  carried  in  the  front  boot  under  the  feet  of  the  driver.  From  nine  to 
twelve  persons  could  be  accommodated  inside,  while  four  could  ride  outside 
on  the  deck  and  two  with  the  driver. 

The  stations  were  usually  from  five  to  ten  miles  apart.  A  team  running 
from  one  station  to  another  with  its  stage  constituted  its  daily  work.  At 
each  station  a  number  of  men  were  kept  to  guard  the  place,  take  care  of  the 
animals,  and  assist  in  hitching  and  unhitching  the  teams  on  arrival.  The 
stages  ran  on  schedule  time;  the  people  at  the  stations  knew  about  when  to 
expect  them,  and  had  everything  in  readiness  to  prevent  delay  and  enable 
them  to  change  horses  with  the  utmost  celerity.  The  driver  rarely  left  his 


TWENTY    YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 


417 


box  while  a  change  was  being  made,  but  when  all  was  in  readiness  the  reins 
were  passed  quickly  to  him,  a  start  was  made  at  once,  and  the  horses  were 
forced  to  their  utmost  until  the  next  station  was  reached,  when  the  same 
scene  of  hurried  change  was  re-enacted. 

The  stages  ran  night  and  day,  covering  a  hundred  miles  each  twenty-four 
hours,  which  in  these  days  of  modern  travel  does  not  seem  a  long  distance, 


i 

f 
v 

OVERLAND  STAGE. 
Reproduced  by  permission  of  J.  B.  Lippincott  &  Co.,  Philadelphia. 

but  in  those  days  with  a  heavily  loaded  stage,  hindered  by  frequent  and 
unavoidable  delays,  bad  roads  through  mountain  passes,  swollen  streams, 
and  other  obstacles,  it  was  regarded  as  extraordinary  service.  The  ordin- 
ary day's  work  of  a  driver  covered  a  distance  of  from  fifty  to  sixty  miles, 
and  in  making  this  journey  from  five  to  six  teams  were  used.  He  went  up 
the  route  one  day  and  came  down  the  next.  His  drive  was  made  continu- 
ously, whether  by  day  or  night,  and  he  was  expected  to  reach  his  destination 
as  nearly  as  possible  on  schedule  time.  A  good  stage  driver  was  not  onljT 
an  expert  reinsman,  but  also  a  man  of  courage,  coolness,  and  judgment. 
The  road  was  unbroken,  in  places  very  rough,  with  abrupt  turns,  deep  gul 
lies  and  washouts. 


418  TWENTY   YEARS  AMONG  OUR  HOSTILE   INDIANS. 

In  the  winter  when  snows  were  deep  the  teams  frequently  became  ex- 
hausted, or  the  driver  lost  his  way.  Then  the  stage  was  abandoned,  and 
the  driver  and  as  many  of  the  passengers  as  could  mount  the  animals  did  so, 
going  to  the  nearest  station ;  but  when  -lost  they  could,  by  following  the  trail, 
return  to  the  station  whence  they  came.  When  the  snow  was  very  blinding 
those  on  foot  were  instructed  by  the  driver  to  take  hold  of  an  animal's  tail 
and  hold  on  until  the  station  was  reached.  On  one  occasion,  during  a  blind- 
ing snowstorm,  when  going  through  Bridger's  pass,  the  horses  arrived  at 
the  foot  of  a  hill  in  an  exhausted  condition.  The  driver  requested  the  pas- 
sengers to  get  out  of  the  stage  and  walk  to  the  top  of  the  hill.  This  they 
refused  to  do.  Before  they  realized  what  had  happened,  the  driver  left  the 
box,  unhitched  the  team,  and  mounting  one  horse  and  leading  the  others, 
was  oh  his  way  back  to  the  last  station,  leaving  the  coach  and  passengers  in 
the  snow.  When  they  realized  the  situation  there  was  consternation  among 
them.  The  driver  on  arriving  at  the  station  reported  what  had  occurred, 
whereupon  the  men  hitched  up  twelve  fresh  animals  and  brought  the  pas- 
sengers in.  The  latter  could  not  have  returned  alone  as  the  blizzard  was 
blinding.  It  sometimes  happened  that  stages  became  lost  in  a.  blizzard, 
remaining  out  twenty-four  or  thirty-six  hours  before  they  were  able  to  pro- 
ceed. 

The  arrival  of  the  stage  coach  at  military  posts,  trading  posts,  and 
ranches,  was  a  matter  of  great  moment,  and  much  excitement  usually  pre- 
vailed while  the  team  was  being  changed.  The  journey  across  the  country 
was  very  exhausting  as  the  passengers  could  only  sleep  while  sitting  very 
close  together  and  in  cramped  positions. 

As  was  to  be  expected,  the  stages  were  great  prey  for  the  Indians,  and 
robbers,  who  were  known  in  that  country  as  "road  agents."  After  captur- 
ing the  stage  and  killing  its  occupants,  the  Indians  secured  the  arms,  cloth- 
ing, and  animals  of  tbe  victims,  and  made  off;  while  the  road  agents,  after 
holding  up  the  stage,  robbing  the  passengers  of  their  valuables,  and  securing 
as  much  express  matter  as  they  could  manage,  permitted  the  looted  stage  to 
resume  its  journey. 

The  stations  were  usually  situated  in  isolated  places  and  were  exposed  to 
attacks  from  the  Indians  who  frequently  raided  them,  securing  all  the 
animals,  thus  seriously  crippling  the  service.  The  raids  were  of  frequent 
occurrence  and  had  much  to  do  with  hastening  the  demand  for  modern 
means  of  travel. 

At  first  stages  were  accompanied  by  outriders,  or,  as  they  were  termed, 
"whippers-in."  These  men  rode  a  horse  alongside  the  team  and  vigorously 
whipped  the  leaders,  to  urge  them  to  their  greatest  speed.  Whippers-in 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG  OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS.  419 

were  of  great  service  in  case  of  attack  from  Indians  or  road  agents,  all  being 
heavily  armed  and  well  mounted,  could  do  much  to  defend  the  stage. 

Along  the  road  originally  traveled  by  the  Overland  Stage,  were  many 
strange  freaks  of  nature.  From  Cottonwood  Creek  to  Court  House  Rock  on 
the  North  Platte,  during  warm  weather,  when  the  sun  was  strong,  there 
was  a  strange  phenomenon  called  the  mirage.  This  phantom  is  very  deceiv- 
ing, for  in  looking  into  the  distance,  through  the  heated  air,  there  are  plainly 
seen  immense  herds  of  elk,  with  large  antlers,  grazing,  walking  or  running 
by  turns.  They  no  sooner  disappear  than  will  arise  in  their  place  beau- 
tiful forests  of  every  kind,  to  be  succeeded  in  a  moment  by  war  parties  of 
Indians  with  flowing  headdress,  mounted  on  fine  horses.  These,  like  the 
elk,  seemed  to  be  standing,  walking  or  running,  or  making  movements,  as 
though  in  drill.  Great  cities  and  castles  also  presented  themselves,  onlj*  to 
vanish  like  the  rest.  I  have,  when  traveling  over  these  plains,  in  the  in- 
tense heat,  asked  those  riding  beside  me  what  they  observed  in  the  mirage. 
Their  reply  generally  accorded  with  what  I  had  seen.  The  eye  is  deceived 
in  a  thousand  ways  by  the  wonderful  transformations  of  this  curious  phe- 
nomenon, which  vary  according  to  the  atmospheric  conditions,  so  that  a  per- 
son nassing  over  the  same  spot  at  different  times  will  scarcely  ever  see  two 
similar  scenes.  No  satisfactory  explanation  of  the  cause,  so  far  as  I  know, 
has  ever  been  given  of  it.  My  own  opinion,  and  that  of  almost  every  person 
with  whom  I  have  conversed,  and  who  are  familiar  with  this  curious  phantom, 
is  that  it  is  the  result  of  the  action  of  the  heat  on  the  ground,  and  on  the  veg- 
etation which  it  decomposes,  thus  causing  an  evaporation  which  produces  the 
illusion. 

Where  this  phenomenon  is  most  marked  is  on  the  upland  prairie  between 
the  crossing  of  the  South  Platte  and  Court  House  Rock  on  the  North  Platte. 
Here  the  atmosphere  is  clear,  and  looking  forward,  Laramie  Peak  is  seen  so 
plainly  that  it  does  not  appear  more  than  five  or  six  miles  distant,  when  in 
reality,  from  this  point  to  its  base  is  fully  one  hundred  and  twenty-five 
miles.  Every  clear  day  this  spectacle  may  be  observed  while  crossing  this 
plateau,  during  the  heated  portion  of  the  day.  This  is  the  only  spot,  to  my 
knowledge,  in  the  Great  West  where  this  phenomenon  appears. 

When  the  Mormons  first  crossed  the  plains,  about  1847,  they,  in  a  man- 
ner, paved  the  way  for  the  Overland  Stage  Route.  They  passed  up  the 
Platte  River  as  far  as  the  present  town  of  Julesburg,  Colorado — which  re- 
minds me  that  the  name  of  this  town  is  connected  with  a  tragedy,  which  is 
worth  relating.  Some  time  after  the  Mormons  passed  through  this  vicinity, 
a  Frenchman  named  Jules  Bevi  built  and  maintained  a  trading  post  there 
for  the  purpose  of  trading  with  Indians,  trappers  and  others.  After  the 


420  TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG  OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 

Overland  Stage  was  started,  it  passed  over  the  same  route  traveled  by  the 
Mormons,  and  Bevi's  ranch  was  made  a  stage  station.  The  stage  company 
had  in  its  employ  some  desperate  characters,  for  the  work  was  extremely 
perilous.  Among  them  was  a  man  named  Alfred  Slade,  who  was  superin- 
tendent of  the  division,  which  ran  from  Fort  Kearney  west  to  South  Pass, 
and  passed  by  Bevi's  ranch.  Slade,  with  some  of  his  comrades,  all  of  them 
intoxicated,  entered  Bevi's  house  and  murdered  him  in  the  most  brutal  man- 
ner. Slade  cut  off  Bevi's  ears,  nailed  one  of  them  to  the  door  of  his  victim's 
ranch,  and  attached  the  other  to  his  watch  chain.  For  this  brutal  crime 
Slade  and  his  companions  were  denounced  by  all  the  whites  in  that  region. 
It  was  from  this  incident  that  the  present  town  of  Julesburg  derived  its 
name — after  Jules  Bevi. 

Slade  was  probably  the  worst  white  man  in  that  country  at  the  time.  He 
was  a  desperate  villain  of  the  meanest  kind,  and  the  armed  escort  he  invar- 
iably had  with  him  were  as  thoroughly  bad  as  their  leader.  He  and  his 
party  committed  many  cold-blooded  murders,  and  terrorized  the  people  of 
that  whole  section. 

About  this  time  the  route  of  the  stage  line  was  changed,  and  ran  from 
Julesburg  up  the  South  Platte  to  Denver,  thence  under  Pike's  Peak  and 
Long's  Peak,  crossing  Cache  La  Poudre  River,  thence  to  Virginia  Dale,  a 
most  beautiful  spot,  surrounded  on  either  side  by  almost  perpendicular 
mountains.  Here  Slade  had  his  headquarters,  and  lived  with  his  wife. 
From  this  beautiful  place  he  and  his  desperadoes  started  on  their  nefarious 
expeditions. 

On  one  occasion  Slade  and  his  party,  while  drunk,  came  into  my  camp  on 
the  Laramie  Plains.  Knowing  the  man  as  I  did,  and  the  desperate  char- 
acters with  him,  I  simply  said:  "Slade,  as  long  as  you  are  in  my  camp  I 
want  you  and  your  party  to  conduct  yourselves  in  a  peaceful  and  gentleman- 
ly manner.  You  know  that  the  troops  have  no  love  for  j'ou,  or  your  party, 
and  the  first  trouble  you  make  I  shall  turn  them  loose  on  you,  and  every 
one  of  you  will  be  wiped  from  the  face  of  the  earth."  It  is  enough  to  say 
that  they  conducted  themselves  as  I  requested,  and  soon  left. 

Shortly  after  this  Slade  was  discharged  or  left  the  Overland  Stage  Line; 
he  and  his  followers  drifted  into  Montana,  where  he  bought  a  ranch  near 
Virginia  City,  to  which  place  he  frequently  resorted  with  his  crew,  and,  as 
usual,  terrorized  the  town.  But  his  reputation  had  preceded  him,  and  the 
Vigilantes  concluded  to  mete  out  to  him  the  same  kind  of  justice  he  had 
given  to  others.  One  morning  when  he,  with  two  of  his  companions,  rode 
into  Virginia  City,  the  Vigilantes  were  in  readiness,  and  at  an  opportune 
moment  covered  them  with  their  guns,  compelling  them  to  throw  up  their 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG  OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS.  421 

hands,  and  then  disarmed  them.  Slade,  knowing  the  temper  of  the  men  he 
was  dealing  with,  tried  to  reason  with  them.  His  request  that  he  be  per- 
mitted to  send  a  note  to  his  wife  was  the  only  one  the  Vigilantes  complied 
with.  After  the  departure  of  the  messenger  with  the  note,  nooses  were 
adjusted  around  the  necks  of  Slade  and  his  two  comrades,  and  they  were 
hanged.  Soon  after  this  Mrs.  Slade  appeared  on  her  horse,  hoping  to  save 
the  life  of  her  husband;  but  she  arrived  too  late,  and  after  viewing  the 
bodies  she  rode  away.  Slade  and  his  two  comrades  died  as  they  had  lived, 
without  friends,  and  in  their  last  extremity  begging  like  cowards  for  their 
lives.  Not  long  afterward,  Mrs.  Slade  sold  her  ranch  and  left  the  country 
for  parts  unknown,  as  Slade  had  perpetrated  a  great  many  robberies,  it  is 
supposed  that  she  carried  with  her  much  wealth. 

From  what  I  have  already  said  in  previous  chapters  it  will  be  remembered 
that  each  nation  or  tribe  of  Indians  did  not  roam  over  the  entire  country. 
Yet,  strange  as  it  may  seem,  an  alliance  was  once  made  between  almost 
every  Indian  nation  who  had  their  hunting  grounds  adjacent  to  or  near  the 
Overland  Stage  road,  from  the  Missouri  River  to  Salt  Lake  City.  Every 
nation  or  tribe  along  this  entire  distance  selected  from  its  forces  all  the  avail- 
able warriors  possible,  and  during  the  latter  part  of  August,  1864,  made  a 
simultaneous  attack  on  the  stages,  overland  travelers  ,  and  all  defenseless 
ranchmen,  for  a  distance  of  about  twelve  hundred  miles.  At  that  time  the 
stage  road  was  covered  with  wagon  trains  almost  from  one  end  to  the  other, 
and  scarcely  a  train  escaped  this  attack.  In  some  of  the  trains  all  of  the 
people  were  massacred,  men,  women  and  children,  and  their  animals  and 
stores  carried  away.  This  was  the  greatest  piece  of  concerted  action  among 
the  Indian  nations  that  was  ever  known.  For  a  long  time  afterward  the 
transportation  and  ranch  interests  were  completely  paralyzed.  Even  the 
overland  stages  carrying  the  United  States  mail  were  compelled  to  stop  until 
the  government  could  send  forces  strong  enough  to  protect  the  line. 

This  massacre  demonstrated  the  strength  and  ability  of  tbese  savage 
people.  For  a  long  time  afterward  the  road  was  unmolested  for  the  reason 
that  the  Indians  had  secured  so  much  plunder  that  they  could  live  at  ease 
until  more  was  required.  In  this  massacre  millions  of  dollars  worth  of 
property  was  destroyed  or  carried  away,  and  the  entire  emigration  to  the 
West  over  this  road  was  closed  for  the  year. 

In  this  massacre  were  the  Brule  Sioux,  who  had  their  hunting  ground 
farthest  to  the  east  of  any  tribe  of  wild  Indians,  the  Ogalalas,  Bad  Faces, 
the  Tribe  that-don't-eat-Dog,  Minneconjoux  and  other  Sioux  tribes.  The 
Cheyennes  and  Arapahoes  from  as  far  south  as  the  Araknsas  River,  were 
also  known  to  have  taken  part  in  the  attack.  The  Utes,  Snakes,  and  Crows, 
with  probably  some  other  nations  or  tribes,  also  joined  in  it. 


422 


CHAPTER  L. 

THE  PONY  EXPRESS— A  DANGEROUS  SERVICE  IN  A  DANGEROUS  COUNTRY 
—WONDERFUL  ENDURANCE  AND  DARING  FEATS  OF  THE  RIDERS. 

Riding  on  Horseback  from  the  Missouri  River  to  the  Pacific  Ocean  in  Ten  Days— A  Buck- 
ing Pony — A  Vicious  Beast — Bleeding  from  the  Nose,  Mouth,  Eyes,  and  Ears — 
Courage  and  Daring  of  Pony  Express  Riders — Running  the  Gauntlet  for  Hundreds 
of  Miles  among  Hostile  Indians  and  Murderous  Road  Agents — Exhaustion  of  the 
Riders — Unable  to  Dismount — Incidents  and  Experiences — Riding  Night  and  Day — 
The  Fastest  and  Longest  Ride  ever  made — Wonderful  Endurance — How  the  News 
of  Abraham  Lincoln's  Inauguration  was  carried  across  the  Continent — Taking  a 
Dead  Man's  Place — Dangers  by  the  way — Pursued — Safe  at  last — Physical  Strain  of 
Long  Horseback  Riding — A  Personal  Experience — My  Escort — A  Never-to-be-for- 
gotten Ride — A  Country  alive,  with  WTild  and  Frenzied  Warriors — The  Electric 
Telegraph. 

THE  Overland  Stage  proved  too  slow  as  a  means  of  communication  be- 
tween the  East  and  the  Pacific  Slope.  At  first  the  stage  reduced  the  time 
from  long  months  required  by  ox-teams,  to  twenty-five  days,  and  it  was  in 
turn  beaten  by  the  Pony  Express,  which  carried  letters  and  small  express 
parcels  through  in  ten  days. 

The  Pony  Express  was  started  in  1859,  and  ran  between  St.  Joseph, 
Missouri,  and  Sacramento,  California.  It  was  not  a  passenger  service,  but 
was  established  for  the  special  purpose  of  carrying  light  express  matter, 
funds,  special  letters,  etc.  The  weight  carried  by  each  horse  was  limited 
to  twenty- five  pounds. 

The  horses  used  in  this  service  were  of  small  size,  usually  bronco  or  wild 
horses,  intractable  and  vicious,  but  having  a  tender  mouth  they  obeyed  the  bit 
and  spur  promptly.  To  saddle  and  bridle  one  of  them  usually  required  the 
united  efforts  of  two  or  three  men.  After  being  caught,  a  blanket  was 
placed  over  the  animal's  head  covering  the  eyes;  while  thus  blindfolded  the 
beast  was  saddled  and  bridled. 

As  soon  as  the  rider  was  firmly  seated  in  his  saddle  he  put  the  rowels  of 
his  large  Mexican  spurs  securely  through  the  hair  cinch  (this  was  woven 
open  for  that  puprose)  to  prevent  the  animal  from  throwing  him.  When  all 
was  in  readiness  the  rider  yelled  to  the  men  who  were  holding  the  blind- 
folded horse  to  let  it  go;  whereupon  the  blanket  was  suddenly  pulled  from 


TWENTY   YEARS  AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS.  423 

its  head,  and  the  animal  was  left  to  the  control  of  the  rider.  The  beast  at 
once  began  "bucking"  in  the  most  furious  manner.  Bucking  was  peculiar 
to  these  animals.  The  operation  consisted  of  suddenly  humping  its  back 
like  a  cat  in  the  presence  of  a  beligerent  dog,  at  the  same  time  lowering  and 
thrusting  its  head  between  its  fore  legs,  its  tail  thrust  between  its  hind  legs, 
and  all  four  legs  as  stiff  as  if  they  had  no  joints  in  them.  In  this  manner 
the  pony  made  astonishingly  rapid  jumps  sideways,  backward,  forward,  and 
in  every  other  way  possible,  using  its  utmost  endeavor  to  throw  the  rider. 
Some  of  them,  at  times,  seized  the  rider's  leg  with  their  teeth,  holding  it  as 
in  a  vise,  in  their  vicious  rage  making  a  strange  noise  through  the  nose 
and  mouth.  Sometimes  they  bucked  so  furiously  that  the  rider  bled  from 
his  nose,  mouth,  eyes  and  ears.  After  the  beast  was  satisfied  that  it  was 
impossible  to  get  rid  of  the  burden  on  his  back,  it  apparently  came  to  its 
senses  and  all  at  once  ran  off  at  full  speed.  The  rider  then  applied  both 
whip  and  spur  and  away  they  went  at  a  mad  pace  to  the  next  station. 

The  saddles  used  were  Mexican,  were  very  comfortable  for  the  rider,  and 
well  adapted  for  this  service,  being  prepared  at  the  cantle  to  hold  and  carry 
the  bags  or  pouch  containing  the  etpress  matter.  A  man  can  ride  a  longer 
distance  on  one  of  these  saddles  without  injury  to  himself,  than  on  any  other 
saddle  in  use.  As  the  riders  bore  a  large  portion  of  the  weight  of  their  bodies 
on  the  stirrups,  the  latter  were  made  of  wood,  with  broad  treads  for  the 
soles  of  the  feet.  Some  riders  hugged  their  horses  so  tightly  with  the  thighs 
that  the}7  rubbed  the  hair  off  the  animal  under  the  skirt  of  the  saddle.  The 
saddle  bags  used  for  carrying  the  express  matter  were  two  small  leathern 
pouches,  hung  on  both  sides  of  the  cantle  of  the  saddle.  They  were  sealed 
and  locked  at  one  end  of  the  route,  and  were  not  opened  until  reaching  their 
destination. 

There  were  about  two  hundred  stations  along  the  line,  requiring  six  hun- 
dred horses,  about  one  hundred  riders,  and  from  five  to  six  hundred  other 
men  were  employed  in  maintaining  the  equipment,  supplying  fuel,  forage, 
and  other  necessaries. 

The  qualifications  for  a  Pony  Express  rider  in  those  days  were  expert 
horsemanship,  undaunted  courage,  and  sound  judgment.  The  route  was 
through  a  country  infested  by  roving  bands  of  wild  and  murderous  Indians, 
as  well  as  by  desperate  road  agents  whose  sole  object  was  plunder  and  who 
did  not  hesitate  to  commit  murder  on  the  slightest  pretext.  From  the  latter 
the  rider  had  as  much  to  fear  as  from  the  savages. 

Almost  the  entire  distance  between  the  two  ends  of  the  line  was  constantly 
raided  by  war  parties  of  Indians  who  were  at  all  times  ready  to  resist  all 
efforts  to  wrench  from  them  the  control  of,  or  the  making  of  roads  through 


424  TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG  OUR   HOSTILE    INDIANS. 

their  bunting  grounds.  Besides,  the  whole  country  was  subject  to  blinding 
snowstorms  and  blizzards  during  the  winter;  and  in  summer  its  dry, 
parched,  long,  weary  road,  its  ragged  sandhills,  rugged  mountains,  long 
brown  plains,  and  peculiar  watercourses  made  it  lonesome  and  dangerous 
beyond  description.  The  many  remains  of  wagons  and  human  bones  that 
were  strewn  by  the  roadside  all  through  that  country  were  sufficient  to  send 
a  shudder  through  the  frame  of  the  stoutest-hearted  traveler. 

The  Pony  Express  horses  were  compelled  to  carry  their  riders  and  express 
matter  from  station  to  station  on  regular  schedule  time,  which  was  very 
fast.  The  rider,  therefore,  had  to  ride  with  judgment;  for  should  he  go  too 
rapidly  at  first,  he  was  liable  to  exhaust  the  strength  of  his  mount  before  he 
had  gone  over  his  route.  It  was  necessary  at  all  times  that  the  animal 
should  have  enough  strength,  not  only  to  cover  his  route,  but  to  carry  him- 
self and  rider  out  of  any  danger  they  might  encounter.  After  riding  a  few 
miles  the  rider  noted  the  condition  of  his  horse,  when,  if  all  right,  he  put 
spurs  to  him,  urging  him  at  the  top  of  his  speed  to  the  next  station.  The 
horses  usually  arrived  at  the  station  in  an  exhausted  condition.  The  dis- 
tance between  the  stations  which  a  horse  was  compelled  to  cover  was  usually 
from  ten  to  twelve  miles.  Sometimes  the  distance  was  shorter  or  longer, 
depending  upon  a  suitable  place  for  the  station,  which  whenever  possible 
was  located  where  wood,  water  and  grass  were  to  be  had. 

The  men  in  charge  of  the  stations  always  had  a  number  of  horses  in  readi- 
ness for  the  arrival  of  the  rider.  While  the  latter  was  getting  a  hasty  bite 
to  eat,  the  men  hurriedly  removed  the  saddle  and  equipment  to  a  fresh  horse, 
which  the  rider  mounted  in  the  manner  already  described.  After  its  usual 
bucking,  the  horse  with  its  load  started  for  the  next  station.  It  was  not  un- 
common for  riders  when  near  the  end  of  their  route  to  arrive  so  much  ex- 
hausted as  to  be  unable  to  dismount.  In  such  cases  the  station  men  took 
rider,  saddle,  and  trappings,  lifting  them  bodily  from  one  horse  to  another, 
when  the  rider  continued  to  the  next  station.  The  distance  covered  by  each 
rider  from  one  end  of  bis  route  to  the  other  was  usually  from  forty  to  sixty 
miles.  He  was  compelled  to  ride  night  and  day,  sick  or  well,  and  in  all 
kinds  of  weather.  Each  rider  usually  rode  from  four  to  six  horses  in  going 
over  his  route. 

I  have  heard  these  riders  talk  among  themselves  of  thrilling  experiences 
while  riding  over  their  routes  on  dark  and  stormy  nights,  with  practically  no 
road  to  follow  or  mark  to  guide  them,  compelled  to  make  their  way  as  best 
they  could.  They  continually  expected  to  run  upon  a  prowling  band  of  In- 
dians, be  held  up  by  road  agents,  or  fall  into  a  deep  gully  or  swollen  stream, 
and  were  always  haunted  by  the  fear  of  dangers  that  might  cost  their  lives. 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG    OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS.  425 

Nor  were  these  dangers  altogether  imaginary,  for  many  a  Pony  Express 
rider  paid  the  penalty  of  his  daring  with  his  life. 

Sometimes  it  snowed  for  twenty- four  hours  consecutively,  covering  the 
earth  to  a  depth  of  two  or  three  feet.  The  wind,  rising  to  a  gale,  blew  the 
snow  into  the  ravines,  filling  them  up  flush  with  the  plains.  Should  a  rider 
be  so  unfortunate  as  to  lose  his  way  in  one  of  these  terrific  and  blinding  snow- 
storms, he  was  liable  to  lose  his  life  by  falling  over  a  precipice,  landing  on 
the  top  of  a  tree,  in  a  river,  or  at  the  bottom  of  a  deep  ravine.  I  have 
known  riders  to  fall  over  a  precipice  with  their  horses,  landing  at  the  bottom 
of  a  deep  ravine  in  snow  many  feet  deep;  and  in  the  terrible  struggle  that 
followed  under  the  snow,  the  horses  broke  the  arms  or  legs  of  the  riders, 
sometimes  killing  them. 

The  Pony  Express  did  not  continue  more  than  twelve  or  eighteen  months. 
It  was  a  financial  failure,  although  for  each  letter  weighing  half  an  ounce, 
going  over  the  route,  from  ten  to  fifteen  dollars  was  charged.  Even  at  this 
high  price  the  enterprise  did  not  pay.  The  letters  were  written  on  tissue 
paper,  were  very  light,  and  a  large  number  of  them  were  carried  in  each 
pouch. 

President  Buchanan's  last  message  to  Congress  in  December,  1860,  was 
carried  from  the  Missouri  River  to  Sacramento,  California,  a  distance  of 
about  two  thousand  miles,  in  a  little  less  than  eight  days;  and  President 
Lincoln's  inaugural  address,  March,  1861,  was  carried  over  the  same  route 
in  seven  days  and  seventeen  hours.  When  the  tremendous  obstacles  that 
had  to  be  surmounted  are  taken  into  consideration,  such  as  rains,  snows, 
storms,  swollen  rivers,  hostile  Indians,  road  agents,  and  real  dangers  of 
almost  every  kind  and  on  every  hand,  together  with  the  terrific  strain  on 
men  and  horses  in  going  over  these  trackless  wilds,  one  can  scarcely  realize, 
in  these  days  of  fast  express  trains  and  luxurious  parlor  cars,  the  feats  of 
wonderful  endurance  performed  by  these  hardy  and  daring  riders. 

It  would  be  invidious  to  single  out  particular  instances  of  daring  and  en- 
durance where  all  did  their  duty  so  well.  But  I  recall  one  feat  of  riding  in 
this  service  which  I  think  is  worthy  of  mention,  for  it  has  never  been 
equaled  before  or  since.  A  rider  named  F.  X.  Aubrey  covered  a  distance  of 
eight  hundred  miles  in  five  days  and  thirteen  hours.  During  this  time  he 
stopped  only  for  the  shortest  rest.  On  reaching  the  end  of  his  route  he  found 
that  the  rider  who  was  to  take  his  place  had  been  killed  by  Indians.  Nothing 
remained  for  him  but  to  take  the  dead  man's  route.  He  anticipated  the 
difficulties  ahead,  though  he  knew  that  it  was  equally  dangerous  to  remain 
where  he  was  or  to  turn  back.  The  countr}r  at  that  time  swarmed  with 
many  bands  of  Indians  on  the  warpath,  and  Aubrey  was  pursued  by  them 


426  TWENTY   YEARS  AMONG  OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 

from  one  point  to  another.  He  was  compelled  to  leave  the  road  and  strike 
around  the  mountains  and  hills  to  keep  in  hiding  from  the  hostiles,  some- 
times leading  one  horse,  which,  when  the  one  he  rode  was  exhausted,  he 
mounted  and  continued  his  journey.  He  made  his  way  successfully  over 
the  route  and  brought  his  express  pouches  through  in  safety.  Aubrey  was 
a  man  of  small  stature  and  light  weight,  as  all  Pony  Express  riders  were 
required  to  be;  he  was  the  impersonation  of  grit,  endurance  and  fearlessness. 
This  ride  came  near  killing  him.  For  months  after  he  was  scarcely  able  to 
walk. 

The  mental  and  physical  strain  of  a  long  horseback  ride,  with  the  knowl- 
edge that  at  each  step  one  was  likely  to  encounter  overwhelming  numbers  of 
murderous  Indians,  and  that  he  was  liable  to  meet  death  at  their  hands  in 
its  most  horrible  form,  can  hardly  be  realized  by  one  who  has  not  experienced 
it.  I  recall  an  instance  in  my  own  experience  that  I  shall  never  forget.  I 
was  detailed  to  carry  important  messages  from  Deer  Creek  to  Fort  Laramie, 
a  distance  of  about  one  hundred  and  twenty-five  miles.  It  was  of  the 
utmost  importance  that  the  despatches  should  be  delivered  in  the  shortest 
possible  time,  as  they  contained  a  request  for  troops  to  relieve  a  party  in  dis- 
tress. I  had  an  escort  of  nine  picked  cavalrymen,  and  our  mounts,  and 
equipments  were  of  the  best.  Each  was  heavily  armed,  having  two  six- 
shooting  Colt's  revolvers  in  the  holsters  of  our  belts,  a  breech-loading  carbine 
slung  over  our  shoulders,  and  sixty  rounds  of  ammunition.  As  there  was 
at  this  time  a  general  uprising  of  the  Indians  throughout  this  vicinity,  the 
country  through  which  we  passed  was  swarming  with  roving  bands  of  fren- 
zied hostiles,  all  intent  on  murder.  Almost  from  the  start,  and  along  the 
entire  route,  we  saw  numerous  signs  of  Indians,  sometimes  indicating  only 
a  few,  and  at  other  times  a  considerable  number.  Although  we  kept  the 
sharpest  lookout  we  failed  to  see  Indians  during  the  first  ninety  miles  of  our 
journey.  The  road  lay  through  a  broken  and  mountainous  country,  afford- 
ing excellent  ambush  for  these  bloodthirsty  wretches,  as  we  approached  each 
rock  or  hill  we  expected  to  be  attacked  at  almost  any  moment.  Our  nerves 
were  strained  to  the  utmost  tension,  and  our  horses  seemed  to  partake  of  our 
feeling,  for  they  were  startled  at  the  slightest  unusual  noise.  A  crow  sit- 
ting on  the  ground  seemed  to  my  overwrought  imagination  like  a  veritable 
Indian.  A  crackling  in  the  bush,  the  snapping  of  a  twig,  or  the  moving  of 
a  stone  by  my  horse's  foot,  as  we  rode  rapidly,  along,  sent  a  shudder 
through  me. 

On  approaching  a  place,called  Le  Bonte's  Camp — a  beautiful  spot  in  a  bend 
of  the  North  Platte,  where  the  Indians  were  accustomed  to  camp,  the  place 
being  well  wooded  and  watered  and  affording  abundant  game — we  expected 


TWENTY   YEARS  AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS.  427 

to  encounter  the  savages.  For  two  or  three  miles  before  reaching  this 
locality  we  dismounted,  leading  our  horses  in  order  to  rest  them.  On  near- 
ing  the  spot  we  remounted  and  prepared  to  run  the  gauntlet,  passing  through 
at  a  sharp  trot.  Much  to  our  surprise  and  relief  we  saw  no  Indians,  but 
plenty  of  signs  showing  that  they  were  in  the  immediate  neighborhood 
From  this  point  on,  the  road  led  through  a  limestone  formation  that  was 
covered  with  a  growth  of  small  cedar  trees.  Here  we  again  brought  our 
horses  to  a  settled  pace,  sparing  them  as  best  we  could  until  we  arrived  in 
the  open  country.  When  about  fifteen  miles  from  the  fort  we  discovered 
signs  that  were  fresh  and  pronounced,  whereupon  we  dismounted,  leading 
our  horses  for  about  a  mile.  Suddenly  some  Indians  appeared  off  to  our 
right,  scattered  in  ones  and  twos,  when  we  at  once  remounted.  They  had 
doubtless  been  watching  us  for  some  time.  I  saw  that  they  contemplated 
an  attack,  but  hoped  to  be  able  to  keep  them  at  a  safe  distance  until  we 
reached  the  stage  station  a  few  miles  below.  On  arriving  there  we  found 
it  had  been  abandoned.  We  thereupon  urged  our  horses  to  a  sharp  trot,  and 
soon  discovered  that  the  Indians'  horses  were  tired  also,  for  they  could  not 
twist  and  turn  them  in  their  usual  rapid  manner. 

In  a  short  time  the  savages,  who  now  seemed  to  grow  more  numerous, 
came  nearer,  and  it  was  not  long  before  one  of  the  warriors  approached  with- 
in rifleshot.  I  immediately  ordered  a  halt,  and  directed  one  of  the  men 
who  was  a  fine  shot  to  bring  down  the  Indian's  horse  by  shooting  it  through 
the  shoulder.  This  he  did  and  the  Indian  was  left  afoot.  Soon  after  the 
reds  divided  and  were  on  both  sides  of  us.  When  one  came  too  near  I  or- 
dered a  halt,  directing  a  trooper  to  shoot  the  Indian's  horse,  being  care- 
ful not  to  kill  the  Indian,  as  I  knew  that  would  precipitate  an  attack  that 
might  cost  us  our  lives.  Within  a  short  time  we  had  killed  three  or  four 
horses,  leaving  the  warriors  on  foot;  and  as  we  were  approaching  the  hills 
situated  two  or  three  miles  from  the  garrison,  the  Indians,  seeing  they  were 
about  to  lose  their  advantage,  closed  in  upon  us. 

Instead  of  firing  singly  as  before  I  now  ordered  all  hands  to  put  all  the  lead 
possible  into  both  horses  and  Indians.  This  we  did  with  such  effect  that  sev- 
eral more  beasts  and  riders  were  brought  down.  In  a  last  desperate  attempt 
the  savages  sought  to  surround  us  entirely,  and  prevent  our  reaching  the  hill- 
top. Urging  our  tired  horses  to  a  sharp  gallop,  and  firing  when  we  could, 
we  succeeded  in  maintaining  the  distance  betweeen  ourselves  and  pursuers; 
shortly  after  getting  over  the  hills,  cavalry  hastened  to  meet  us  from  the  gar- 
rison, where  the  firing  had  been  heard.  The  Indians  now  abandoned  the 
pursuit,  and  gathering  together  retreated  over  the  hill.  They  numbered 
between  thirty  and  forty. 


428  TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 

We  knew  from  experience  how  to  cover  the  distance  with  the  least  dis- 
tress to  ourselves  and  horses,  and  the  ride  was  made  in  thirty-two  consecu- 
tive hours.  On  arriving  at  our  destination  I  do  not  believe  there  was  a 
man  in  the  party  who  could  have  gone  ten  miles  farther. 

After  reaching  the  fort  and  resting,  the  reaction  from  the  prolonged  strain, 
both  mental  and  physical,  set  in.  My  knees  began  to  swell  until  they  be- 
came nearly  twice  their  natural  size,  and  I  was  so  physically  shaken  up  and 
exhausted  that  I  could  not  walk  without  difficulty  for  weeks.  Some  of  my 
men  were  unable  to  leave  the  hospital  fora  long  time;  and  some  of  the 
horses  were  so  badly  used  up  that  they  were  never  again  fit  for  service. 

After  the  discontinuance  of  the  Pony  Express  it  was  found  necessary  that 
telegraphic  communication  be  had  between  the  people  of  the  Atlantic  and 
Pacific  states.  Many  projects  were  originated  by  which  this  object  could  be 
accomplished,  and  many  influential  firms  and  telegraphic  companies  were 
appealed  to  for  money  and  means  to  secure  this  mode  of  communication. 

It  was  not  until  the  project  was  brought  to  the  notice  of  the  Creightons, 
who  had  built  telegraph  lines  in  Ohio  and  elsewhere  that  this  line  was  built 
Having  fully  imbued  the  Creightons  with  the  practicability  and  financial 
success  of  such  a  line,  they  were  induced  to  undertake  it.  Having  spent 
large  amounts  of  money  and  much  time  in  securing  the  necessary  material 
and  equipment,  some  time,  about  18G1  or  1862  they  commenced  its  construc- 
tion along  the  route  formerly  traveled  by  the  Pony  Express.  In  construct- 
ing this  line  they  had  many  fine  mule  teams.  These  teams  consisted  of  two, 
four,  and  six  large  Kentucky-  mules  to  each  wagon.  In  this  way  telegraph 
wire,  poles,  insulators,  and  other  material  necessary  to  build  the  telegraph 
line  over  the  entire  route  were  transported.  The  telegraph  poles  for  the  first 
seven  hundred  miles  were  brought  a  long  distance,  as  the  country  through 
which  the  line  passed  was  without  timber.  It  required  a  great  deal  of  cour- 
age to  construct  this  line,  although  they  accomplished  it  and  had  it  in  full 
operation  within  a  year  after  they  began.  The  line  was  well  constructed, 
and  was  the  natural  outgrowth  of  the  requirements  of  civilization. 

A  strange  coincidence,  and  one  that  probably  prevented  the  destruction  of 
the  overland  telegraph,  happened  near  Beauvais*  ranch,  about  nine  miles 
below  Fort  Laramie.  When  the  men  were  constructing  the  line  in  that 
locality,  some  of  Old  Smoke's  tribe,  who  where  friendly  with  the  white 
men,  made  inquiries  as  to  what  it  was.  They  were  informed  that  the  tele- 
graph could  talk  long  distances,  and  if  they  injured  it  in  any  way,  it 
would  tell  the  great  father  in  Washington,  which  would  make  him  very 
angry.  Three  Frenchmen,  Beauvais,  Bissinette  and  Bordeaux,  were  Indian 
traders,  and  had  Indian  women  for  their  wives,  which  circumstance 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS.  429 

made  the  Indians  more  friendly  to  them,  if  such  a  thing  could  be.  Mr. 
Beauvais  was  a  large,  intelligent  and  courageous  gentleman,  for  whom  the 
Indians  who  were  at  all  friendly  had  great  respect.  He  told  them  if  they 
did  not  believe  that  the  telegraph  could  speak  instantaneously  for  a  long 
distance,  he  should  prove  it.  When  the  line  was  finished  as  far  west  as  the 
Platte  Bridge,  some  Indians  belonging  to  the  Minneconjoux  tribe  (the  others 
were  Ogalala  Sioux)  were  in  the  office  at  or  near  his  ranch.  They  held  a 
conversation  over  the  telegraph  wire  with  others  at  Platte  Bridge,  and 
agreed  to  meet  near  Le  Bonte's  camp,  a  distance  of  about  one  hundred  and 
twenty-five  miles.  When  they  met  and  compared  notes,  they  were  fully 
satisfied  of  the  ability  of  the  telegraph  to  talk  at  long  distances.  Another 
incident  happened  in  this  connection.  Some  Indians  tore  down  a  portion  of 
the  telegraph,  using  the  wires  for  making  trinkets  for  themselves.  It 
chanced  that  smallpox  broke  out  among  these  Indians,  and  almost  annihil- 
ated the  whole  of  them.  After  this  they  had  a  profound  respect  for  the  tele- 
graph, and  it  was  not  molested  further  by  them,  as  they  believed  the  wire 
was  the  cause  of  the  disease. 


430  TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 


CHAPTER   LI. 

WILD    HORSES— WHERE-  THEY  CAME    FROM— HOW  THEY  WERE    CAPTURED 

AND  SUBDUED. 

Wild  Horses — First  Known  in  America  in  1518 — Indians'  Astonishment  at  first  seeing  a 
Horse  and  Rider— The  Wild  Horse's  Struggle  for  Existence  during  the  Cold  Winter 
—Indian's  Mode  of  Securing  them — Their  Cruelty  to  them — Their  Great  Abundance 
in  Early  Days— The  White  Man's  Method  of  Securing  them — "  Creasing" — Walking 
them  down — From  Twenty-four  to  Thirty-six  Hours  Necessary  to  Accomplish  it — 
Difficulty  in  Breaking  them. 

PREVIOUS  to  the  discovery  of  the  New  World  domestic  animals  were  un- 
known to  the  Indians.  The  first  known  importation  of  horses  to  this  conti- 
nent was  made  in  1518.  When  Cortez  invaded  Mexico  the  Indians  looked 
with  wonder  and  astonishment  on  the  Spanish  cavaliers.  When  they  first 
saw  a  man  riding  a  horse  they  imagined  that  horse  and  man  were  one 
animal. 

During  and  after  the  conquest  many  horses  escaped  to  the  wilds,  where 
they  multiplied,  and  in  time  large  herds  of  them  in  their  wild  state  spread 
over  the  territory  of  Mexico  and  the  prairies  and  mountains  of  the  entire 
North  American  continent.  They  have  been  captured  as  far  north  as  the 
Great  Slave  Lake,  where  the  Indians  at  first  killed  them  for  food. 

The  herds  of  wild  horses  that  roamed  in  the  far  north  in  winter  when  deep 
snows  covered  the  ground  had  a  severe  struggle  for  existence.  They  became 
greatly  weakened  from  insufficient  food ;  when  the  watercourses  and  ponds 
were  frozen,  and  the  ground  was  bare  of  snow,  they  became  almost  frantic 
from  thirst.  When  in  this  condition  they  were  easily  secured  by  the 
Indians. 

Nearly  all  the  tribes  of  the  Shoshone  nation  captured  them  with  the 
lasso,  while  on  foot.  Their  favorite  method,  however,  was  to  mount  a  fleet 
horse,  and  with  a  lasso  approach  the  wild  horses  as  near  as  possible  without 
alarming  them ;  then  suddenly  dashing  into  the  herd  they  selected  one  of 
the  best  animals,  throwing  the  lasso  with  unerring  aim  over  its  neck,  secur- 
ing the  other  end  firmly  to  the  saddle  and  following  the  fleeing  wild  horse, 
slowly  slacking  the  pace  of  the  trained  horse  until  the  lasso  became  firmly 
stretched  between  the  two  animals.  The  noose  around  the  wild  horse's  neck 


TWENTY    YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS.  431 

was  then  gradually  tightened  until  the  animal  was  choked  sufficiently  to 
cause  it  to  fall.  The  Indian  then  dismounted  and  quickly  tied  the  front 
feet  of  the  wild  animal  together,  leaving  it  in  this  position  until  it  had  ex- 
hausted itself  iu  efforts  to  regain  its  freedom.  He  then  gradually  ap- 
proached, until  he  could  touch  it,  when  he  placed  the  lasso  around  the  ani- 
mal's lower  jaw.  Iu  this  position  the  wild  horse  was  completely  at  the 
mercy  of  its  captor.  The  animal  once  in  the  Indian's  possession  was  treated 
with  great  cruelty  until  it  was  broken.  Some  of  the  wild  horses  were  very 
obstinate,  and  it  was  necessary  to  almost  kill  them  before  they  could  be  sub- 
dued and  made  tractable. 

In  summer  when  grass  was  plenty,  it  required  an  extraordinarily  good 
horse  to  enable  an  Indian  to  overtake  a  drove  of  wild  horses,  for  the 
mounted  horse  was  compelled  to  carry  the  rider  and  his  trappings,  while 
the  wild  horse  was  entirely  free,  fresh,  and  in  good  condition. 

In  the  entire  country  along  the  foothills  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  from 
the  Great  Slave  Lake  as  far  south  as  the  central  portion  of  Mexico,  wild 
horses  were  found  in  great  abundance.  The  white  men  and  trappers  secured 
them  in  various  ways,  one  of  which  was  by  "creasing."  This  was  done  by 
shooting  the  animal  through  the  grizzly  part  of  the  neck,  just  in  front  of 
the  withers,  and  a  few  inches  below  the  mane.  If  well  done,  the  shot  gave 
the  horse  a  shock  sufficient  to  throw  it  down,  where  it  laid  stunned  for  a  few 
minutes.  While  thus  dazed,  the  hunter  ran  quickly  to  it  and  tied  the  ani- 
mal's fore  or  hind  legs  together  until  it  was  sufficiently  subdued;  or  he  fas- 
tened a  lasso  around  the  animal's  neck  and  lower  jaw,  making  it  fast  to  the 
saddle  of  his  own  horse.  In  this  manner  the  wild  horse  could  be  securely 
held  until  it  was  taken  to  camp,  where  it  was  afterward  broken. 

Another  mode  of  capturing  them  was  to  walk  them  down.  In  doing  this 
it  was  necessary  to  have  a  party  of  mounted  men,  numbering  from  ten  to 
twenty,  according  to  the  size  of  the  wild  herd.  When  a  herd  was  seen,  one 
or  two  mounted  men  approached  it  cautiously,  and  when  near  enough  they 
endeavored  to  cause  the  animals  to  move  in  a  circle.  Great  care  was  re 
quired  to  prevent  them  from  running  or  stampeding.  The  mounted  men 
kept  them  constantly  on  the  walk,  never  for  an  instant  permitting  them  to 
stop  even  long  enough  to  bite  the  grass,  and  above  all,  preventing  them  from 
getting  water.  After  the  animals  had  been  kept  moving  in  this  way  for 
two  or  three  hours,  another  mounted  man  appeared  on  the  scene,  to  assist 
the  first  one.  In  the  course  of  another  hour,  two  other  mounted  men  care- 
fully approached  to  relieve  the  first  two  men,  who  with  their  horses  gradu- 
ally dropped  out  and  returned  to  camp  for  rest  and  refresment.  After  three 
or  four  hours  of  constant  walking  without  food  or  water,  the  wild  animals 


432  TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG  OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 

became  dazed,  and  if  not  frightened  could  easily  be  kept  moving  in  a  circle- 
After  some  twenty-four  to  thirty-six  hours  of  continuous  walking  in  this 
manner,  the  men  approached  the  herd  with  lariat  ropes,  catching  one  at  a 
time,  holding  it  until  the  herd  had  walked  a  short  distance  away,  then, 
after  placing  the  lasso  around  its  lower  jaw,  they  led  it,  plunging  and  fight- 
ing, to  camp,  where  it  was  securely  tied  by  the  neck  to  a  tree,  or  to  a  broken 
animal. 

The  majority  of  wild  horses  were  stubborn  and  it  required  much  patience 
to  train  them  without  breaking  their  spirit.  The  stallions  were  particularly 
vicious  and  difficult  to  break.  They  sometimes  attacked  a  man  with  their 
teeth,  almost  tearing  him  to  pieces.  From  start  to  finish  the  work  of  captur- 
ing them  in  any  way  was  difficult  and  fatiguing. 

The  Indians  did  not  understand  the  science  of  making  a  gelding;  conse- 
quently they  and  the  stallions  were  at  constant  war;  every  time  one  of  these 
horses  was  to  be  used,  he  had  to  be  subdued,  and  the  longer  rest  the  ani- 
mal had  the  more  difficult  the  task. 

After  capture,  wild  horses  rarely,  if  ever,  became  tractable.  It  was  neces- 
sary to  break  them  to  each  morning's  work.  If  the  animal  was  to  be  rid- 
den, one  foreleg  was  tied  up,  and  the  saddle  was  securely  fastened  on  its  back, 
and  after  the  bridle  was  placed  over  its  head,  its  leg  was  let  down.  A  lasso 
was  then  fastened  about  its  neck,  and  the  animal  was  turned  loose  and 
allowed  to  buck  until  exhausted.  If  it  was  to  be  used  iu  harness,  its  leg 
was  tied  up  as  before,  the  harness  put  on,  the  animal  turned  loose,  when  the 
usual  bucking  was  indulged  in.  After  it  had  been  tired  out,  the  horse  was 
hitched  to  the  vehicle  and  ready  for  work.  These  animals  were  small  in 
stature,  very  hardy,  though  not  tough.  For  sharp,  quick  work  they  com- 
pared favorably  with  domestic  horses. 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS.  433 


CHAPTER  LII. 

KILLING  BUFFALOES— AN  EXCITING  AND  DANGEROUS  SPORT— "BUCK 
AGUE"— GREEN  SPORTSMEN— PERSONAL  EXPERIENCES  AND  REMINIS- 
CENCES. 

Millions  of  Buffaloes — Indispensable  to  the  Indians — How  Wolves  Attacked  and  Killed 
them — Why  did  they  always  cross  in  Front  of  a  Railroad  Train? — Buffalo  Gnats — 
Stinging  the  Animals  to  Fury — Buffalo  Chips — The  only  Fuel  on  the  Plains — Guests 
Deceived — Eaten  Alive  by  Wolves — The  Latter's  Unearthly  Howls — Excitement  of 
a  Buffalo  Hunt — A  Thrilling  Spectacle — Horses  as  Buffalo  Hunters — Dashing  into 
the  Herd — A  Shower  of  Stones  and  Earth — Dangerous  Sport  for  a  Verdant — Shoot- 
ing the  Animal  through  the  Ears — Inexperienced  Hunters — Teaching  them  to  Hunt 
— Shooting  his.  own  Horse — An  Astonished  Sportsman — Danger  of  being  Trampled 
to  Death— Buck  Ague — Its  Effects. 

YEARS  ago  buffalo  herds  were  numerous  and  large,  and  covered  almost 
the  entire  country  west  of  the  Mississippi  River,  to  the  eastern  chain  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains.  I  am  inclined  to  give  full  credit  to  the  stories  of 
cheir  enormous  numbers.  To  persons  not  accustomed  to  seeing  them  in 
herds,  the  surprising  statements  as  to  their  numbers  thirty  or  forty  years 
ago  may  seem  to  be  overdrawn;  but,  as  I  know  them,  I  cannot  remember 
any  statement  that  exaggerated  the  number  of  these  huge  beasts  that  roamed 
over  the  western  country,  in  the  early  part  of  my  experience  there.  The 
artillery  at  Fort  Kearney  actually  fired  into  them  to  keep  them  out  of  the  fort. 
I  have  traveled  for  months  at  a  time  and  never  been  out  of  sight  of  their 
countless  numbers. 

In  Kansas,  where  the  buffalo  grass  was  plentiful,  their  numbers  were 
incalculable.  As  far  the  eye  could  reach  in  every  direction  was  a  solid  mov- 
ing mass  of  buffaloes,  as  the  plains  were  literally  black  with  them.  Soon 
after  the  Union  Pacific  Railroad  was  opened  its  trains  were  detained  for 
hours  while  waiting  for  buffalo  herds  to  cross  the  railroad  tracks.  At  first, 
the  engineers  thought  they  could  rush  the  trains  through  the  herds  with 
impunity,  but  they  soon  discovered  that  the  only  way  was  to  let  the  animals 
take  their  own  time  in  crossing. 

They  were  not  always  assembled  in  close,  compact  herds,  but  were  fre- 
quently scattered  while  feeding  on  the  prairies,  after  the  manner  of  domestic 
cattle.  Forty  years  ago  it  would  have  been  impossible  to  estimate  their 


434  TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 

number  even  approximately,  but  there  were  millions  of  them;  and  it  is  diffi- 
cult to  realize  that  they  have  now  become  nearly  extinct. 

Formerly  the  buffaloes  ranged  over  the  greater  part  of  the  American  con- 
tinent. They  were  migratory,  and  their  wandering  habits  were  well  under- 
stood by  the  Indians.  They  claimed  to  know  of  four  kinds;  the  common 
buffaloes  found  on  the  plains,  mountain  buffaloes,  wood  buffaloes,  and  beaver 
buffaloes.  I  have  not  seen  all  these  varieties,  but  the  Indian  accounts  of  them 
may  be  correct,  as  the  different  kinds  of  robes  in  their  possession  seemed  to 
testify. 

The  new  coat  of  the  buffalo  was  dark  brown  in  color;  later  it  grew  paler, 
and  when  the  hair  was  shed,  the  coat,  especially  of  the  young  animals,  be- 
come a  dark  brownish  red.  The  cows  had  one  calf  at  a  birth,  which  was 
usually  dropped  during  May  or  June.  At  birth  the  color  of  the  calf*  was  a 
bright  yellow,  with  a  pale  red  stripe  covering  its  backbone,  this  stripe  grad- 
ually changed  to  the  natural  color  with  age.  The  robe  was  at  its  best  in  the 
fall  or  winter  when  the  buffalo  had  its  full  winter  coat.  Occasionally  a 
buffalo  robe  was  seen  in  the  silk.  These  robes  were  as  beautiful  as  they 
were  rare.  The  hair  was  fine  and  of  a  dark  rich  color,  as  glossy  as  the 
finest  silk,  and  as  soft  as  velvet.  There  was  no  shaggy  mane  on  these  robes, 
every  part  of  the  skin  being  covered  with  hair  resembling  the  coat  of  the 
finest  horse. 

Years  ago  the  buffaloes  supplied  nearly  all  the  food  of  the  North  American 
Indians;  especially  for  those  living  west  of  the  Mississippi  River  and  east 
of  the  Rocky  Mountains.  These  great  animals  roamed  as  far  north  as  the 
Saskatchewan  River,  in  Canada,  and  as  far  south  as  Mexico.  Millions  of 
them  were  slaughtered  every  year  for  the  sustenance  of  the  Indans  oc- 
cupying this  vast  territory.  They  supplied  them  not  only  with  food,  but  fur- 
nished them  with  robes  and  hides  for  clothing  and  dwellings.  Many  of  the 
tools  used  by  them  were  made  from  its  hide,  horns  and  bones.  The  hide  of 
the  bulls  was  tanned  and  used  for  lodge  covers.  When  dried  in  the  sun, 
after  the  hair  was  taken  off,  it  become  as  hard  as  flint;  this  was  used  for 
soles  of  moccasins,  belts,  and  other  purposes.  It  was  also  used  to  keep 
dampness  and  cold  out  of  their  beds,  being  laid  on  the  ground  and  the  rest 
of  the  bedding  placed  on  top  of  it.  The  rawhide  was  cut  into  strands  and 
braided  into  ropes.  The  green  hide  was  converted  into  kettles  in  which 
they  boiled  their  meat,  and  it  was  also  used  in  making  canoes.  The  tough, 
thick  hide  of  the  neck  of  the  bull  made  battle  shields  that  were  proof  against 
arrows  and  lances.  The  Indians,  in  short,  allowed  no  part  of  the  buffalo  to 
go  to  waste.  The  brains  were  used  in  tanning  skins;  the  bones  were  boiled ; 
the  extract  was  used  as  a  soup;  the  marrow  was  eaten;  and  the  entrails 


TWENTY    YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS.  435 

were  also  eaten  either  cooked  or  raw.  There  was  no  sweeter  meat  than  that 
of  a  fine  barren  cow,  or  young  bull,  the  most  desirable  part  being  the  muscle 
lying  on  both  sides  of  the  animal's  withers.  This  was  called  the  hump.  The 
liver  and  tongue  were  of  fine  flavor.  No  one  ever  thought  of  telling  the 
number  of  buffaloes  he  had  killed,  unless  able  to  produce  the  tongues,  and  the 
number  of  these  told  their  own  story. 

The  Indians  were  not  alone  in  pursuit  of  the  buffaloes.  Wolves,  both  gray 
and  coyote,  frequently  attacked  the  old  bulls  for  their  meat.  A  number  of 
wolves  would  single  out  an  old  bull,  when  one  or  two  attacked  him  in  the 
rear,  and  with  their  sharp  teeth,  cut  his  hamstring,  bringing  him  down  on 
his  haunches.  This  accomplished,  they  at  once  proceeded  to  eat  their  victim 
alive.  When  a  pack  of  wolves  attacked  a  buffalo,  they  set  up  a  yell 
that  was  unearthly.  Their  noise  did  not  seem  to  frighten  these  old  mon- 
archs,  but  they  formed  themselves  in  a  circle,  preparing  for  battle,  in 
which  some  were  sure  to  be  killed.  When  grazing  along  the  foot-hills  of 
the  mountains  and  thus  attacked,  and  one  of  their  number  lay  prostrate 
surrounded  by  hungry  wolves,  a  grizzly  bear  sometimes  made  his  appear- 
ance and  with  one  stroke  of  his  paw  cleared  every  wolf  from  their  prey. 
Then  they  sat  at  a  respectful  distance  from  the  carcass  of  the  animal,  licking 
their  jaws,  and  whining  like  whipped  dogs;  but  not  until  bruin  had  fin- 
ished his  meal  and  taken  his  departure,  would  these  skulking  animals  again 
attack  the  carcass. 

These  great  animals  were  migratory,  not  from  inclination,  but  from  neces- 
sity. When  the  ground  in  the  far  north  was  covered  with  snow  and  ice, 
it  was  impossible  for  them  to  reach  their  food,  and  when  the  rivers  were 
frozen  over,  they  were  compelled  to  eat  snow  to  quench  their  thirst.  It  was 
distressing  to  see  them  on  the  ice  of  a  frozen  river  endeavoring  to  get  water. 
They  slipped  and  fell  in  all  manner  of  ways.  Sometimes  falling  into  an  air- 
hole in  the  ice;  one  after  another  falling  or  being  pushed  into  the  water  and 
drowned. 

The  buffaloes  were  peculiar  in  one  respect.  If  they  attempted  to  cross  a 
road  upon  which  was  a  moving  wagon  train,  body  of  troops,  or  a  railway 
train,  they  all  invariably  crossed  in  front,  never  breaking  and  crossing  at 
the  rear.  When  alarmed  and  running,  their  heads  were  always  down,  and 
they  kept  as  close  together  as  possible.  While  moving  in  this  manner  those 
in  front  were  unable  to  stop,  even  if  they  had  the  desire  to  do  so,  those  in  the 
rear  forcing  them  irresistibly  on;  should  a  herd  be  suddenly  frightened  and 
start  to  run  over  a  precipice,  all  of  them  rushed  over  before  they  could 
stop,  and  when  found  their  bodies  were  one  mass  of  bloody  jelly,  unfit  for 


436  TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG  OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 

food.  The  Indians,  knowing  that  these  animals  were  valuable  to  them, 
were  careful  not  to  kill  more  than  were  required  for  their  needs. 

Late  in  the  summer  and  fall  when  buffalo  gnats  were  abundant,  they 
annoyed  these  great  animals  beyond  endurance.  The  buffalo  gnat  was  a  small 
black  fly  and  looked  like  a  black  bead.  It  settled  on  the  buffaloes,  bury- 
ing itself  in  the  thick  hair  and  hide,  driving  them  almost  frantic,  sometimes 
eating  great  sores  on  them.  Buffalo  "wallows"  were  depressions  in  the  land 
caused  by  the  animals  wallowing  in  the  dirt,  trying  to  free  themselves  from 
the  countless  gnats  that  were  torturing  them.  When  the  first  telegraph 
line  was  erected  over  the  plains  the  poles  were  frequently  thrown  down  from 
some  unaccountable  cause;  it  was  subsequently  discovered  that  this  was  done 
by  the  buffaloes  rubbing  against  them  to  scratch  themselves  in  their  efforts  to 
allay  the  irritation  caused  by  the  gnats.  An  experiment  was  made  of  driv- 
ing heavy  spikes  in  the  poles  to  keep  the  animals  away,  but  this  only 
attracted  them  all  the  more. 

Under  ordinary  circumstances  buffaloes  were  stupidly  dull  and  inoffen- 
sive animals,  spending  their  time  in  eating  and  sleeping,  fighting  gnats  dur- 
ing tbe  day,  and  seldom  going  far  from  water,  of  which  they  required  large 
quantities. 

I  am  of  the  opinion  that  if  care  had  been  taken  in  domesticating  the 
buffaloes  they  would  have  become  a  valuable  acquisition  to  our  food  supply, 
and  furnished  robes  for  use  in  the  northern  latitudes  during  cold  weather. 

It  was  not  uncommon  along  the  borders  of  civilization  to  find  domestic 
cattle  running  wild  with  buffalo  herds.  These  cattle,  after  they  had  been 
with  the  buffaloes  for  a  short  time,  became  much  more  ferocious  and  wild  than 
the  buffaloes  themselves. 

When  the  buffaloes  shed  their  long  hair,  which  turned  to  a  dirty  brown  in 
the  spring,  they  presented  a  singular  appearance,  the  old  loose  hair  hanging 
in  patches  and  mats  over  their  bodies. 

One  of  the  most  useful  products  of  the  buffaloes,  along  the  wood  less  course 
of  the  Overland  wagon  road,  was  the  buffalo  "chip."  This  was  the  dried 
dung  of  the  buffaloes,  and  was  composed  of  the  woody  fiber  of  the  grass 
which  the  animals  had  eaten.  After  lying  in  the  sun  these  chips 
became  dry,  and  were  the  only  article  on  this  long  road  which  could  be  col- 
lected and  used  for  fuel.  They  made  a  hot  fire,  with  only  a  small  flame. 
Without  buffalo  chips  it  is  difficult  to  conceive  how  travelers  and  plains- 
men could  have  secured  fuel  for  cooking  purposes,  for  there  was  absolutely 
no  other  fuel  in  that  country.  Perhaps  fastidious  people  would  revolt  at 
having  their  meals  cooked  over  such  a  fire,  with  the  wind  blowing  and 
covering  the  eatables  with  the  ashes  and  dust  from  the  burning  embers. 


TWENTY   YEARS    AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS.  43? 

But  hunger  is  the  best  sauce ;  and  as  a  cook  once  said  in  my  hearing,  to 
some  gentlemen  who  were  with  us  on  a  hunting  expedition,  who  asked  what 
time  dinner  would  be  ready:  "Dinner  in  this  carnp  is  always  served  promptly 
at  six  o'clock,  except  on  three  occasions,  when  it  is  earlier,  when  it  is  later 
or  when  we  don't  dine  at  all,"  so  in  early  days  it  would  have  been  the  latter 
alternative  to  everybody  on  the  plains  but  for  buffalo  chips. 

It  seems  incomprehensible  that  the  millions  of  buffaloes  that  once  roamed 
over  the  vast  plains  should  have  almost  entirely  disappeared,  and  that  our 
government  should  not  have  taken  steps  to  prevent  hunters  and  others  from 
wantonly  killing  these  valuable  beasts  for  their  hides  alone  (which  brought 
only  three  or  four  dollars  each,)  leaving  the  carcasses  to  rot  where  they  had 
been  slain.  South  Park  was  filled  with  buffaloes.  It  was  well  watered,  had 
suitable  grass  for  their  subsistence,  was  well  proctected  from  the  elements, 
and,  at  small  expense,  large  numbers  of  these  great  animals  could  have  been 
maintained  there. 

Once  while  on  a  hunting  expedition  in  Texas,  a  party  of  gentlemen  from 
the  East  joined  us,  and,  as  domestic  cattle  were  plentiful,  and  could  be  had 
for  the  killing;  we  always  had  in  our  wagons  a  good  supply  of  fine  beef. 
After  killing  some  buffaloes  one  afternoon,  and  bringing  the  meat  into 
camp,  I  asked  my  guests  if  they  desired  some  of  it  for  dinner.  They  said 
no;  that  the  beef  they  had  been  eating  was  good  enough  for  them,  and 
politely  insisted  that  they  wanted  no  buffalo  meat  on  the  bill  of  fare.  I 
said  no  more,  but  called  the  cook,  who  was  a  son  of  Ham,  and  said,  in  their 
hearing:  "Professor,  I  want  for  my  dinner  the  finest  and  juicest  piece  of 
buffalo  hump  that  you  can  find ;  for  the  rest  of  the  party  you  may  cook  some 
of  the  prime  beef  in  the  wagons," — at  the  same  instant  giving  him  the 
wink.  He  replied,  "All  right,  sah."  That  evening  at  dinner,  my  guests 
did  not  cease  to  comment  on  the  fine  flavor  of  the  beef  they  were  eating,  and 
to  disparage  the  dry  meat  of  the  buffalo  which  they  supposed  I  was  eating. 
Dinner  over,  I  said  to  them  :  "I  noticed  that  you  particularly  liked  the  beef 
you  had  for  dinner;  permit  me  to  say  that  I  did  not  enjoy  mine  as  much 
as  you  did  yours,  for  I  dined  off  a  piece  of  beef  and  you  feasted  on  the  hump 
of  a  buffalo."  It  did  not  require  persuasion  afterward  to  induce  them  to  eat 
buffalo  hump. 

On  approaching  a  herd  of  buffaloes  the  old  bulls  were  alwa.ys  encountered 
first.  They  formed  a  sort  of  fringe  around  the  great  brown  surging  mass, 
and  were  usually  scattered  in  groups  or  singly  at  a  distance  of  from  a  hun- 
dred yards  to  half  a  mile  from  the  body  of  the  herd,  from  which  they  had 
been  driven  and  kept  at  a  distance  by  the  young  bulls,  after  the  latter  had 
attained  full  growth  and  strength.  Hence  when  buffaloes  were  attacked  by 


438  TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 

wolves,  it  was  the  old  bulls  on  the  outer  edge  that  met  the  attack.  Their 
ostracism  resulted  in  forming  a  guard  for  the  rest  of  the  herd.  When  the 
herd  was  frightened  or  stampeded,  however,  the  old  bulls  mingled  with 
them  in  their  flight.  At  times  groups  of  these  ex-monarchs  abandoned  the 
herd  entirely,  wandering  away  by  themselves. 

When  young  bulls  attacked  the  old  ones  they  were  no  match  for  the  latter 
in  single  combat.  When  a  young  bull  attacked  one  of  these  sturdy  old  fel- 
lows and  defeated,  other  young  bulls  came  to  the  assistance  of  the  beaten 
animal,  a  desperate  and  ferocious  combat  was  sure  to  take  place.  The 
fight  sometimes  lasting  for  hours,  and  in  the  furious  encounter  the  young 
bulls  were  often  disabled  or  mortally  wounded.  The  old  bulls  were  some- 
times of  enormous  size  and  strength,  and  fought  with  great  ferocity.  It  was 
only  after  the  fiercest  and  most  protracted  encounter  that  they  would  relin- 
quish leadership  among  the  herd,  leaving  the  places  to  their  younger  rivals. 
During  these  combats  both  the  ycung  and  old  bulls  fought  until  both  fell 
exhausted.  In  this  condition,  with  blood  pouring  from  many  wounds, 
tongues  hanging  from  their  mouths,  panting  and  gasping  for  breath,  they 
continued  the  battle.  The  ground  fought  over  in  these  encounters  showed 
the  fierceness  of  the  struggle,  being  torn  up  for  rods  around  and  covered 
with  blood  and  tufts  of  hair.  Sometimes  one  or  two  bulls  might  lie  prostrate 
mortally  wounded ;  at  other  times,  with  a  broken  leg,  or  having  lost  both 
eyes,  they  remained  on  the  scene  of  carnage  presenting  a  pitiable  sight,  and 
in  this  condition  were  frequently  eaten  alive  by  wolves,  bears,  and  other 
carnivorous  animals.  It  did  not  take  long  after  blood  had  been  drawn  before 
the  keen-scented  scavengers  made  their  appearance  in  large  numbers,  par- 
ticularly wolves.  They  quietly  sat  or  stood  in  circles  by  daylight,  around 
the  scene  of  battle,  and  at  the  first  opportunity  one  of  the  bolder  or  hungrier 
made  a  dash  for  its  victim.  If  successful,  it  was  but  a  short  time 
before  the  carcass  was  literally  covered  by  these  snarling  beasts.  If  the 
battles  were  at  night,  especially  when  the  weather  was  sharp  and  cold,  the 
wolves  set  up  an  unearthly  howl,  and  soon  there  were  countless  numbers  of 
them  on  tbe  spot  waiting  an  opportunity  to  appease  their  voracious  appetites. 

The  killing  of  an  old  bull  was  a  perilous  undertaking.  When  a  number 
of  old  bulls  discovered  the  hunter,  they  prepared  for  battle,  their  heads 
down,  and  their  eyes  glowing  like  balls  of  fire.  At  the  first  shot  they  either 
ran  away  or  charged  the  attacking  party.  An  old  buffalo  bull  when  wounded 
was  a  very  dangerous  animal,  and  used  every  effort  in  his  power  to  reach 
his  pursuers.  I  have  seen  them  with  blood  running  from  their  noses, 
scarcely  able  to  move,  stand  and  tear  the  ground  with  their  sharp  hoofs, 
their  tails  erect  in  the  air,  doing  their  utmost  to  induce  the  pursuer  to  come 


TWENTY   YEARS  AMONG  OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS.  439 

near  enough  for  attack,  and  until  life  had  left  them  it  was  dangerous  to  go 
near  the  furious  beasts. 

The  excitement  of  a  buffalo  hunt,  in  which  I  often  participated  during  my 
long  sojourn  in  the  Indian  country,  will  always  remain  with  me  a  vivid 
and  pleasing  memory.  To  see  the  Indians  on  their  fleet  ponies,  in  swift  pur- 
suit of  those  shaggy -maned  monarchs  of  the  prairies,  was,  to  me,  a  spectacle 
more  thrilling  than  the  fiercest  bull  fight  in  the  pent-up  amphitheatres  of 
Spain.  To  be  a  participant  in  the  hunt  was  still  more  thrilling,  an  experi- 
ence never  to  be  forgotten ;  and  so  fascinating  that  the  more  it  was  indulged 
in  the  keener  grew  the  enjoyment,  until  finally  it  became  a  passion.  The 
space  for  the  hunt  was  as  limitless  as  the  prairies.  In  the  eagerness  of  the 
chase  every  muscle  quivered,  every  nerve  was  at  its  fullest  tension,  every 
faculty  was  keenly  on  the  alert,  and  the  excitement  brought  with  it  the 
glow  of  health  and  the  vigor  of  youth.  It  was  magnificent  outdoor  sport. 
The  long  rides,  the  exhilaration  of  the  exercise,  and  deep  draughts  of  pure 
air,  made  this  sport  one  of  the  most  fascinating  that  could  be  indulged  in. 

When  on  a  buffalo  chase  only  the  best  horses  were  used.  It  was  necessary 
that  the  animal  selected  should  have  not  only  great  courage  and  speed, 
but  intelligence  enough  to  carry  its  rider  without  guidance  after  the  killing 
once  began.  When  the  firing  began  the  reins  were  dropped  over  the  pom- 
mel of  the  saddle,  and  not  touched  again  by  the  rider  until  he  was  through 
firing.  The  horse  was  expected  to  jump  over  a  rock  or  hole  of  his  own  ac- 
cord, as  well  as  to  avoid  all  obstacles  in  the  way. 

After  approaching  the  herd  as  near  as  possible,  without  being  discovered, 
the  hunting  party  dashed  into  it.  The  buffaloes,  now  thoroughly  alarmed, 
first  wildly  stared,  then  crowding  together,  with  heads  down  and  tails  up 
rushed  at  a  mad  pace  from  their  pursuers,  the  small  herds  joining  the  others 
in  their  flight  until  they  formed  an  immense  solid  black  mass  fleeing  across 
the  prairie.  In  their  flight,  when  the  ground  was  dry,  they  raised  great 
clouds  of  dust  which  could  be  seen  for  miles.  This  was  exceedingly  trying 
for  both  men  and  horses.  The  eyes,  nose,  and  mouth  of  both  soon  became 
filled  with  dust,  and  when  dampened  by  the  moist  breath  formed  a  sticky 
mud,  not  only  disagreeable  in  itself,  but  creating  intense  thirst. 

Should  the  ground  be  soft  or  wet  both  rider  and  horse  were  covered  with 
the  wet  earth,  which  the  buffaloes,  in  their  flight,  threw  back  with  great  force 
from  their  sharp  hoofs  into  the  faces  of  horse  and  rider.  It  required  a  horse 
of  courage  to  withstand  the  constant  rain  of  clods  of  earth  on  breast,  flanks, 
face,  nostrils  and  eyes. 

When  buffaloes  were  once  frightened  and  started  to  run,  or  were  stampeded, 
they  kept  close  together,  forming  a  compact  mass.  Should  one  stumble  or 


440  TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG  OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 

fall,  many  others  stumbled  over  their  prostrate  comrade  before  it  could  rise, 
and  often  could  not  get  up  at  all.  The  hunter  had  to  avoid  groups  of  fallen 
and  stumbling  buffaloes,  for  should  he  get  into  them  his  horse  might  also  fall, 
and  both  it  and  the  rider  be  severely  injured  if  not  trampled  to  death. 

Buffalo  hunting  was  a  science  that  had  to  be  learned.  To  those  not  ac- 
customed to  it,  it  was  dangerous  sport.  The  inexperienced  hunter  was 
always  doing  what  he  should  not  do,  sometimes  wounding  his  horse,  or  that 
of  a  comrade,  or  wounding  or  killing  himself  or  some  one  else.  A  man 
might  be  ever  so  good  a  hunter  for  other  game,  and  yet  be  the  veriest 
bungler  in  hunting  buffaloes. 

In  killing  these  animals  the  hunter  rode  bodly  into  the  fleeing  herd,  his 
horse  running  only  as  fast  as  the  buffaloes.  Then  selecting  the  animal  de- 
sired, he  fired  directly  behind  the  fore  shoulder,  as  this  was  the  tenderest 
place,  and  a  shot  entering  at  this  point  was  most  likely  to  strike  a  vital  part. 
This  threw  the  buffalo  down,  and  after  the  hunter  had  exhausted  his  am- 
munition, or  had  shot  a  sufficient  number,  he  returned  and  killed  those  he 
had  already  wounded  that  were  left  lying  on  the  prairie.  When  in  the 
chase  and  shooting  these  animals,  it  was  necessary  at  all  times  to  have  one 
or  twb  buffaloes  between  the  rider  and  the  animal  selected  to  be  shot,  for  if 
this  precaution  was  not  taken  the  wounded  buffalo  was  liable  to  fall  in  front 
of  the  horse  of  the  hunter,  or  strike  the  animal  next  to  it  a  severe  blow  with 
its  horns.  It  was  useless  to  fire  at  the  head  of  one  of  these  huge  beasts,  for 
no  ordinary  bullet  would  penetrate  its  thick  skull ;  yet,  I  have  seen  an  ex- 
perienced buffalo  hunter  shoot  a  buffalo  in  the  ear,  killing  it  instantly.  The 
animals  selected  to  be  killed  were  usually  barren  cows,  young  bulls,  or 
heifers,  as  the  meat  of  the  old  bulls  was  strong  in  flavor  and  stringy,  although 
it  was  used  as  food  by  the  Indians. 

We  frequently  had  visits  from  distinguished  visitors  who  desired  to  learn 
something  of  the  life  of  this  wild  country.  On  several  occasions,  I,  with 
my  command,  escorted  them  on  a  general  hunt  for  antelope,  elk,  deer, 
buffalo,  and  sometimes  bears.  When  a  herd  of  buffaloes  was  discovered,  a 
detail  of  eight  or  ten  of  the  best  troopers  in  the  command  were  chosen  for 
the  chase,  selecting  those  who  were  good  shots,  and  expert  riders. 

When  any  of  the  civilians  cared  to  accompany  us  on  a  buffalo  hunt  the 
first  request  made  of  them  was  to  disarm  themselves,  this  was  sure  to  excite 
their  indignation  and  was  invariably  followed  by  the  question,  "Why  do 
you  ask  us  to  disarm?  We  can't  kill  buffalo  without  weapons."  The  in- 
variable reply  was  that  it  was  more  important  that  they  should  not  kill  or 
wound  themselves,  or  any  of  the  troops.  We  then  started  for  the  chase,  I 
directing  each  civilian  to  ride  close  to  one  of  the  troopers,  and  selecting  one 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS.  441 

of  the  verdants  to  accompany  me.  We  always  kept  the  civilians  on  our 
right,  as  the  firing  was  usually  to  the  left  with  a  carbine,  and  to  the  right 
with  a  pistol. 

On  a  hunt  near  Fort  Phantom  Hill,  in  Texas,  after  having  taken  a  party 
through  their  first  chase,  I  consented  that  on  the  next  some  of  them  might 
accompany  us  armed.  One  of  the  gentlemen  had  a  Colt's  army  revolver, 
and  was  mounted  on  a  fine  horse.  We  had  scarcely  entered  the  herd  before 
I  heard  a  shot,  and  looking  in  that  direction,  saw  a  horse  falling,  the  rider 
going  heels  over  head  through  the  air.  The  rider  in  his  excitement  had 
placed  the  pistol  between  the  ears  of  the  animal,  and  fired  a  bullet  into  its 
brain.  I  assisted  the  rider  to  his  feet,  but  he  was  so  confused  that  he  could 
scarcely  speak.  In  reply  to  my  inquiry  as  to  why  he  had  shot  his  horse,  he 
said,  after  some  hesitation,  that  it  was  incomprehensible  to  him,  unless  he 
was  so  excited  that  he  did  not  know  what  he  was  doing. 

Fear  seemed  to  take  possession  of  everyone  making  his  first  attack  on  these 
animals.  The  experience  of  all  plainsmen,  mountaineers,  and  army  officers, 
when  initiating  new  men  in  the  buffalo  hunt,  was,  that  they  became  very 
nervous  and  excited  when  coming  up  with  the  herd,  and  were  seized  with 
what  was  known  as  "buck  ague."  When  once  seized  with  buck  ague,  inex- 
perienced hunters  trembled  as  though  suffering  from  a  violent  attack  of 
chills;  and  seemed  to  lose  control  of  themselves,  and  were  liable  to  discharge 
their  arms  unconsciously  in  every  direction. 

During  the  chase  it  frequently  occurred  that  the  buff  aloes,  when  frightened, 
and  running  at  the  top  of  their  speed,  squeezed  so  close  together  that  they 
crushed  the  legs  of  the  hunter  against  his  horse.  On  such  occasions  it  was 
necessary  that  the  experienced  hunter  should  exercise  control  over  the  novice 
and  force  him  to  ride  as  rapidly  as  the  running  buffaloes;  for,  should  he 
attempt  to  stop  his  horse,  he  might  be  run  down  by  those  pressing  relent- 
lessly forward  in  his  rear. 

I  have  often  been  compelled  to  strike  the  back  of  a  buffalo  with  my  carbine 
in  order  to  drive  it  away  to  prevent  my  horse  from  being  thrown.  After  we 
had  expended  all  our  ammunition,  or  had  killed  enough  buffaloes,  it  was  not 
uncommon  to  find  ourselves  in  the  center  of  a  great  herd  of  these  animals  a 
mile  or  more  in  diameter.  The  effort  then  was  to  withdraw.  This  was  ac- 
complished by  slacking  the  pace  of  the  horses  gradually,  until  the  herd  ran 
past,  for  if  we  attempted  to  stop  at  once,  the  buffaloes,  in  their  mad  rush, 
might  throw  our  horses  down  and  trample  us  to  death.  It  often  required 
half  an  hour's  run  to  get  out  of  a  great  herd. 

The  horse  that  I  rode  on  many  hunts  had  great  speed,  and  possessed  more 
courage  and  intelligence  than  any  horse  I  have  ever  seen.  He  was  a  per- 


442  TWENTY   YEARS  AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 

feet  buffalo  bunter,  and  seemed  to  enjoy  tbe  cbase  as  mucb  as  I.  Wbile 
I  was  sometimes  frigbtened  at  the  position  in  which  we  found  ourselves,  this 
horse,  with  the  reins  lying  over  tbe  pommel  of  the  saddle,  and  without  guid- 
ance whatever,  would  run  only  as  fast  as  the  buffaloes  surrounding  him. 
When  he  came  to  a  small  depression  or  ravine  be  cleared  it  with  a  jump. 
If  passing  through  small  timber,  he  would  always  leave  sufficient  room  be- 
tween a  bush  or  tree  so  that  neither  of  us  might  be  injured.  He  seemed  to 
enjoy  the  sport  so  much  that  with  every  shot  I  fired,  frightening  the  buffaloes 
more  and  more,  he  only  increased  his  speed  sufficiently  to  hold  his  positior 
in  the  herd,  never  for  an  instant  losing  his  head  or  temper. 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS.  443 


CHAPTER  LIII. 

WILD  ANIMALS  AND  REPTILES  OF  THE  PLAINS  AND  MOUNTAINS— THE 
DEADLY  RATTLESNAKE  AND  ITS  HABITS— FUR-BEARING  ANIMALS 
AND  THEIR  WAYS. 

The  Rattlesnake — Its  Deadly  Bite — Its  One  Good  Trait — Its  Sickening  Odor — Coiling  for  a 
Spring — Manner  of  Striking — How  Deer  Killed  the  Rattler — The  Rattler's  Only  Re- 
deeming Quality — How  the  Peccary  and  Hog  Killed  Snakes — How  the  Blacksnake 
Killed  the  Rattler — The  Pisano  or  Road  Runner — Its  Method  of  Killing  Rattlers — 
The  Bull  Whacker's  Method — The  Prairie  Dog  and  its  Habitation — What  it  Lived 
on — Its  Domicile  Invaded  by  Rattlers  and  Screech  Owls — The  Antelope  and  its 
Habits— Its  Fatal  Curiosity— The  Elk— The  Moose— Use  of  his  Flag  Horns— The 
Black  Tailed  Deer— The  White-Tailed  Deer— The  Beaver— A  Born  Architect— Their 
Beds — A  Sagacious  and  Industrious  Animal — Gnawing  Feet  off  to  Gain  their  Freedom 
—The  Otter. 

THE  Overland  road,  (after  being  changed)  from  Denver  west,  passed  near 
the  foothills  of  the  Snowy  Range  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  whose  summits 
are  covered  with  perpetual  snow.  Hidden  among  these  mountains  are  the 
most  beautiful  glens,  parks,  and  streams  that  can  be  imagined.  Here  the 
elk  and  flaghorn  moose  were  numerous,  also  black  and  white  tailed  deer,  as 
well  as  black,  cinnamon,  and  grizzly  bears,  and  mountain  lions.  On  the 
plains  below,  on  either  side  of  this  range,  were  found  antelope  in  countless 
numbers. 

On  the  tops  of  the  mountains  lived  the  mountain  sheep,  the  meat  of  which 
was  the  finest  of  any  animal  in  this  region.  Here  also  the  feathered  tribe 
thrived  in  great  variety ;  geese,  ducks,  California  quail  (a  beautiful  species, 
with  a  tuft  on  the  head  like  a  peacock,  but  without  the  song  of  the  familiar 
Bob  White),  pinnated  grouse,  prairie  chickens,  and  pice  cock  were  in  great 
abundance.  The  latter  lived  on  pine  cones,  and  its  meat  tasted  strongly  of 
the  resin  contained  in  them. 

Our  esteemed  friend,  the  rattlesnake,  also  flourished  in  all  this  region.  I 
call  him  our  "esteemed  friend"  because  all  who  knew  him  had  great  respect 
for  this  venomous  reptile,  always  allowing  ample  space  and  treating  him 
with  due  consideration.  It  was  rarely,  if  ever,  that  anything  except  the 
hog  survived  the  bite  of  one  of  the  death-dealing  rattlers.  They  made  their 
homes  generally  among  the  stones,  sometimes  in  the  habitations  of  prairie 
dogs,  and  were  usually  from  one  foot  to  four  feet  in  length.  Of  the  truth  of 


444 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 


the  statement  that  for  each  year  of  a  rattler's  life  a  rattle  was  added  to  his 
tail,  I  have  my  doubts;  for  I  have  frequently  seen  large  rattlers,  probably 
three  inches  in  diameter,  and  three  or  four  feet  in  length,  having  only  a  few 
rattles,  while  others  only  an  inch  in  diameter  and  two  to  three  feet  in  length, 
with  fifteen  and  sixteen  rattles  on  their  tails  were  common. 

The  rattlesnake  has  one  good  quality  when  alive,  i.e.,  if  you  gave  him  a 
chance  he  always  notifies  you  not  to  come  too  near.  If  alarmed  and  angry 
he  immediately  coils,  and  in  the  center  of  his  coil  the  end  of  his  tail  with  the 
rattles  on  it  stands  erect,  with  these  rattles  he  makes  a  peculiar  noise  that 


MOUNTAIN   LION. 

once  heard  is  never  forgotten.  At  the  same  time  he  emits  an  odor  from  his 
month  that  is  so  sickening  as  to  cause  any  living  thing  near  to  pause.  The 
rattler  cannot  strike  except  when  coiled,  and  when  he  does  so,  he  uncoils  so 
quickly  that  the  eye  cannot  follow  the  movement.  He  can  only  spring  about 
three-quarters  the  length  of  his  body.  The  upper  jaw  being  almost  vertical, 
the  two  fangs  standing  at  almost  right  angles  to  it.  With  these  he  strikes 
the  object  aimed  at,  injecting  the  poison  at  the  same  time.  When  at  rest, 
the  fangs,  which  work  as  if  on  hinges,  lie  close  along  the  upper  jaw,  the 
points  turned  backward.  The  fangs  are  connected  with  the  sac  that  con- 
tains the  poison.  After  striking,  he  immediately  resumes  his  coiled  position 
and  prepares  for  another  stroke.  The  rattlesnake  is  an  enemy  to  all  living 
things,  and  nearly  all  things  of  flesh  and  blood  are  enemies  of  his. 

It  was  interesting  to  watch  deer  kill  rattlesnakes.     The  deer  would  run 
from  the  side  of  a  hill,  and  when  close  to  the  snake  crossed  their  feet  in  the 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS.  445 

shape  of  the  letter  X,  landing  with  a  bound  on  the  body  of  the  snake,  and 
springing  away  before  he  had  time  to  coil  and  strike.  Deer  never  jumped 
on  a  rattler  when  he  was  coiled. 

The  hog,  and  the  peccary,  which  is  a  species  of  the  hog,  both  of  which 
were  numerous  in  Texas  and  Mexico,  were  also  great  enemies  of  the  rattle- 


RATTLE  SNAKES  AT  REST. 
Supplied  by  "  Cosmopolitan  Magazine,"  April,  1899. 

snake.  Both  killed  the  rattlers  with  their  teeth.  The  venom  of  the  reptile 
does  not  seem  to  have  a  bad  effect  on  either  of  these  two  animals.  A  hog 
will  never  seek  its  dinner  elsewhere  while  he  can  scent  a  rattler.  Many 
stories  are  told  of  the  hog's  invulnerability  to  poison,  how  he  will  turn  his 
cheek  to  the  snake,  letting  it  strike  repeatedly  until  the  serpent  exhausts 
its  poison,  and  other  preposterous  tales.  The  plain  truth  is:  a  hog  will  seize 


440 


TWENTY   YEARS  AMONG    OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 


the  rattler,  or  any  other  snake,  place  his  forefcot  on  it,  tear  it  to  pieces,  then 
eat  it,  and  seem  all  the  better  for  the  meal.  In  the  case  of  the  rattler  the 
hog  scents  the  reptile,  and  appears  to  delight  in  nosing  it  out  of  the  ground. 
Farmers  know  that  in  fields  and  places  where  hogs  are  turned  loose  the  rat- 
tler soon  disappears. 

One  of  the  greatest  enemies  of  the  rattler  is  the  blacksnake.  The  latter 
is  the  more  powerful,  and  by  far  the  more  agile.  The  rattler  is  sluggish  in 
its  movements,  and  is  quick  only  when  striking  from  its  coil.  Then  it  is  so 
swift  that  scarce  any  living  thing  can  evade  it.  Whenever  these  two  species 


RATTLESNAKE  PREPARING  TO  STRIKE. 

Supplied  by  "  Cosmopolitan  Magazine,"  April,  1899. 

of  snakes  meet,  there  is  sure  to  be  a  fight,  and  to  the  death.  The  rattler  is 
almost  invariably  the  victim.  It  knows  by  instinct  that  the  blacksnake  is 
its  deadly  enemy,  and  at  once  prepares  for  battle.  Why  the  blacksnake 
has  such  an  antipathy  to  the  rattlesnake,  no  scientist,  so  far  as  I  know,  has 
ever  satisfactorily  explained.  But  of  that  antipathy,  anybody  who  has  spent 
a  short  time  among  the  Iignum-vita3  woods  of  Texas,  where  both  of  these 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS.  447 

species  of  snakes  abound,  cannot  doubt.  When  the  two  snakes  meet  the 
rattler  coils  at  once,  and  the  blacksnake,  instinctively  knowing  the  venom- 
ous quality  of  its  hated  enemy,  keeps  at  a  safe  distance.  It  is  curious  to 
witness  the  tactics  of  the  combatants  as  they  begin  the  strife.  In  the  open- 
ing rounds  the  blacksnake  is  alwaj's  the  aggressor;  but  it  maintains  the 
scriptural  reputation  of  the  wisdom  and  subtlety  of  the  serpent,  for  it  tries 
to  baffle  and  confuse  its  enemy  and  defers  the  final  struggle  as  long  as  possi- 
ble, though  the  rattler  is  far  from  being  its  equal  in  strength . 

The  physical  construction  of  the  two  snakes  are  quite  different,  and  each 
fights  in  its  natural  way.  The  rattler  coils,  with  head  erect,  ready  to  spring. 
It  does  not  try  to  get  away,  for  its  enemy  is  animated  lightning,  and  would 
embrace  it  in  its  coils  in  a  flash.  The  blacksnake  is  a  constrictor,  and  not 
venomous,  depending  on  its  rapidity  of  movement  to  daze  and  seize  its  enemy. 
It  sweeps  around  the  rattler  in  a  circle,  its  head  erect  and  a  few  inches  above 
the  ground,  while  the  rattler  tries  to  follow  it,  with  eyes  aglow,  its  head  in 
striking  position,  its  fangs  set,  and  its  rattles  in  constant  motion.  Quicker 
and  quicker  the  long,  lithe,  black  fellow  sweeps  around  until  it  seems  to  be 
a  gleaming  hoop  of  black,  all  the  time  keeping  at  safe  distance.  This  move- 
ment is  continued  until  the  rattler  becomes  dazed  in  its  effort  to  follow  with  its 
eyes  its  circling  foe.  At  length  the  rattler  droops  its  head,  and  then  with  a 
dart  so  swift  that  the  eye  cannot  follow  it,  the  blacksnake  springs  upon  its 
victim,  and  seizing  the  rattler  just  behind  the  jaws,  holds  with  the  tenacity 
of  a  bulldog.  Should  it  miss  or  lose  its  hold,  it  is  sure  to  be  bitten,  which 
would  be  fatal.  In  a  second  the  rattler  is  enveloped  in  its  folds  and  the 
blacksnake  proceeds  to  crush  the  life  out  of  its  victim.  Both  reptiles  now 
lie  motionless  for  a  time,  save  that  the  constricting  coils  of  the  blacksnake 
may  be  noticed  pressing  its  foe  tighter  and  tighter.  After  a  while  the  tail 
of  the  blacksnake  gradually  uncoils  as  if  cautiously  feeling  whether  or  not 
its  victim  is  3Tet  alive.  When  satisfied  that  the  rattler  is  dead,  the  black- 
snake  unloosens  its  coil,  lets  go  the  dead  snake's  neck,  and  then  glides  off 
through  the  grass  or  into  the  bushes  as  if  in  the  exultation  of  a  duty  well 
performed.  The  blacksnake  does  not  eat  the  rattler;  but  kills  him  from 
pure  hatred. 

Another  enemy  of  the  rattler  is  the  pisano,  or  chaparral  cock,  commonly 
known  as  the  road  rnnner.  This  is  a  beautiful  species  of  bird,  symmetrical 
in  form,  somewhat  on  the  lines  of  the  mocking  bird,  and  about  the  size  of  an 
English  pheasant.  Its  legs  are  black,  long,  and  very  fine,  its  tail  long  and 
thin,  its  beak  about  the  three  inches  in  length,  is  straight,  and  very  sharp- 
pointed.  Its  wings  are  small,  and  while  it  can  only  fly  a  short  distance,  it 
uses  them  to  help  itself  in  running.  It  runs  so  rapidly  with  the  aid  of  ite 


448  TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 

wings  tbat  neither  a  dog  or  a  fleet  horse  can  overtake  it,  and  will  frequently 
keep  ahead  of  the  traveler  on  the  road  for  long  distances.  This  queer  bird 
seems  to  have  a  natural  antipathy  to  the  rattlesnake.  It  will  take  a  dried 
portion  of  the  thorny  cactus,  and  holding  it  in  its  beak,  boldly  approach 
the  snake,  extend  its  wings,  and  cause  the  reptile  to  strike.  When  striking 
the  bird  holds  its  bill  in  such  a  way  that  while  the  wing  is  withdrawn  with 
the  rapidity  of  a  flash  the  rattler  receives  the  thorns  in  the  mouth.  After 
striking  the  thorns  once  or  twice,  the  reptile's  mouth  is  lacerated  and  his 
venom  is  so  expended  that  he  becomes  prostrated  and  refuses  to  strike 
again,  no  matter  how  tantalized  or  angered.  Then  the  pisano  proceeds  to 
pick  his  eyes  out  with  his  long  sharp  beak,  leaving  the  reptile  to  die. 

In  addition  to  the  natural  enemies  of  this  venomous  reptile  the  human 
family  also  destroys  it.  Mule-whackers,  bull-whackers,  and  stage-drivers 
stand  at  a  safe  distance  from  a  rattlesnake,  cause  it  to  coil,  and  then  strike  its 
head  off  with  one  blow  of  their  long  whip  lashes. 

Much  has  been  written  on  the  rattlesnake's  power  to  charm,  and  the  ques- 
tion has  given  rise  to  many  discussions  among  naturalists  and  scientists. 
These  discussions,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  hinge  on  scientific  technicalties  or 
quibbles.  The  snake  may,  according  to  these  learned  men,  "charm"  or 
"fascinate"  its  victim,  or  it  may  not.  The  truth  is  that  nature  has  provided 
the  snake  with  a  means  of  securing  its  prey  or  food  as  she  has  all  other  liv- 
ing things  of  creation.  Nature  never  made  a  living  thing  but  she  made 
another  to  destroy  it,  and  furnished  it  the  means  to  do  so.  Now  the  snake, 
instead  of  pursuing  its  prey,  allures  it.  Instead  of  "charming"  or  "fascin- 
ating" it,  it  paralyzes  it  with  fright.  It  is  the  intense  hypnotism  of  fear  that 
causes  the  bird  to  drop  from  the  limb,  or  the  rabbit  sit  trembling  in  the  grass 
until  seized. 


PKAIRIE  DOGS. 

The  prairie  dog  is  a  little  animal  that  flourished  on  the  plains,  and  is 
peculiar  in  its  habits.  Its  towns  were  numerous  throughout  the  West. 
Prairie  dog  towns  were  sometimes  from  half  to  three-quarters  of  a  mile 
across,  and  covered  with  countless  hillocks  made  from  the  dirt  dug  from  the 
holes.  On  a  bright  sunny  day  the  dogs  could  be  seen  running  in  every 
direction.  On  the  hillocks  a  number  of  the  little  animals  were  perched  as  if 
standing  guard,  and  if  alarmed,  they  made  a  barking  noise,  and  disappeared 
in  their  holes.  After  a  short  time  they  again  put  their  heads  above  ground, 
and  if  the  danger  remained  they  barked  and  disappeared.  The  ground  in 
and  about  their  towns  was  entirely  bare  of  grass,  showing  that  they  lived  on 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 


449 


grass  and  its  roots.  They  doubtless  also  ate  earth  worms  and  other  small 
living  things.  I  do  not  know  why  this  little  animal  was  called  a  dog,  as 
it  in  nowise  resembles  one;  but  I  suppose  it  received  its  name  from  the 
peculiar  snappy,  barking  noise  it  makes  when  stationed  on  guard  at  the  en- 
trance of  its  habitation.  Neither  did  its  meat  resemble  that  of  the  dog,  but 
looked  and  tasted  more  like  pork.  The  prairie  dog  was  difficult  to  secure 
for,  when  shot,  it  nearly  always  fell  into  its  hole. 

Rattlesnakes  and  the  prairie  owl — a  small  species  of  the  screech  owl  that 
lived  on  the  prairie — often  made  their  abode  in  prairie  dogs'  holes.  Some 
persons  (one  a  representative  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution  at  Washington, 
who  accompanied  us  for  a  short  time)  thought,  after  careful  observation, 
that  the  prairie  dog,  prairie  owl,  and  the  rattlesnake  lived  together  in  har- 


PBAIRIE  DOGS. 

mony.  My  theory  is  that  the  rattlesnake  took  forcible  possession  of  the 
prairie  dog's  hole,  and  was  an  intruder  of  the  worst  sort,  and  from  which  the 
occupant  of  the  home  always  fled.  It  not  only  dispossessed  the  little  animal 
of  its  home,  but  whenever  possible,  devoured  its  young.  The  owl  was  also 
a  rank  intruder,  thrusting  itself  into  the  prairie  dog's  retreat  to  escape  the 
light  of  the  sun  during  the  day.  My  opinion  is  that  the  owl  also  was  in 
great  fear  of  the  rattler. 


THE  ANTELOPE. 

The  antelope  was  the  most  plentiful  of  all  small  game  on  the  plains  and 
in  the  foothills  of  the  mountains.     It  rarely  entered  the  timber,  but  was 


450 


TWENTY   YEARS  AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 


found  on  the  hillsides  where  grass  was  abundant,  or  on  the  open  plain  where 
it  could  see  everything  likely  to  approach  or  attack  it.  In  winter  they  were 
found  in  vast  herds  always  near  the  foothills  of  the  mountains.  I  have 
seen,  at  the  foot  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and  in  the  Black  Hills,  during  a 
snowstorm,  hundreds  of  thousands  of  antelopes  in  a  single  herd.  These 
animals  had  one  or  two  young  at  a  birth,  and  as  soon  as  they  were  born 
could  run  as  rapidly  as  the  mother.  The  antelope  had  great  curiosity, 
which  often  cost  its  life.  A  piece  of  red  cloth,  or  a  flag,  if  held  up, 
attracted  its  attention,  and  as  long  as  it  remained  quiet  antelopes  approacheoi 
from  all  quarters  to  learn  its  meaning.  While  they  were  to  the  windward 


THE  ANTELOPE. 


they  approached  near,  and  could  be  easily  killed.  Their  sense  of  smell  was 
very  acute,  and  they  readily  detected  the  presence  of  man  if  the  wind  was  in 
the  right  direction.  Their  meat  was  among  the  best  that  could  be  obtained 
in  that  country,  being  tender,  nutritious,  and  of  fine  flavor,  one  could  subsist 
on  it  for  a  long  time  without  anything  else.  Its  skin  was  of  small  value., 
being  tender,  thin,  and  porous,  but  the  Indians  used  it  for  varous  purposes 
after  tanning.  The  horn  stood  erect  from  the  head,  straight,  and  spike- 
like,  for  ten  or  twelve  inches,  its  short  and  sharp  end  turned  backward.  It 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS.  451 

was  the  fleetest  of  any  animal  in  that  country.  An  antelope  could  outrun 
the  swiftest  greyhound.  I  have  seen  an  antelope,  with  its  foreleg  broken 
by  a  shot,  chased  by  one  of  these  dogs,  run  away  with  ease ;  its  foreleg  flop- 
ping over  its  back  at  every  jump. 

The  manner  of  killing  them  was  to  approach  through  a  ravine,  if  this 
could  be  done;  for  if  they  were  in  the  hills,  and  became  alarmed,  they  im- 
mediately ran  up  the  first  valley  they  came  to,  ascending  a  hill,  and  then 
stop  to  make  an  observation.  The  hunter  going  up  the  valley  next  to  it, 
getting  if  possible  to  the  top  of  the  ridge  before  the  antelope,  when  he  could 
usually  secure  one  or  two. 


THE  ELK. 

The  elk  was  found  during  the  entire  year  in  great  abundance  in  the  Black 
Hills,  or  near  them.     During  the  breeding  season,  or  when  the  antler  was 
in  velvet,  the  buck  elk  was  aggressive  and  often  attacked  a  man  without 
hesitation.     Their  gait  was  a  trot,  the  animal  never  going  at  a  gallop  until 
tired  or  wounded.     When  they  broke  into  a  gallop  they  could  be  easily  cap- 
tured or  killed.     When  going  through  the  timber  the  head  was  elevated 
until  the  antlers  laid  upon  their  backs,  forming  a  wedge  to  enable  them  to 
get  through  the  brush,  for  it  was  impossible  for  them  to  penetrate  thick 
brush  with  antlers  erect.     The  antlers  of  a  full-grown   buck  elk  measured 
from  four  to  six  feet  'n  length,  and  from  three  to  five  feet  in  width.     With 
the  antlers  laid  on  their  backs,  their  eyes  looking  skyward,  they  could  not 
see  their  way,  and  would  run  over  anything  in  their  path.     The  cry  of  a 
wounded  elk  was  much  like  that  of  a  child.     Just  below  the  eyes  were  two 
smooth  places,  and  in  the  mating  season  the  animal  called  its  mate  by  utter 
ing  a  shrill  sound  through  these.     By  imitating  thi?  noise,  hunters  called  the 
elk  near  enough  to  shoot  them.     The  hide  was  coarse,  spongy,  and  of  little 
value.     When  dried  in  the  sun  it  became  as  hard  as  flint/     The  Indians  used 
this  flint  hide  for  soles  of  moccasins,  and  other  purposes,  and  when  tanned, 
for  covering  lodges,  making  saddle  girths,  and  the  coarser  articles  of  horse 
equipment.     The  meat  of  the  elk  was  coarse  and  dry,  like  that  of  a  mule, 
although  when  jerked  and  well  dried,  it  could  be  eaten,  but  like  the  meat  of  a 
mule  it  was  not  eaten  from  choice  but  from  necessity.     They  bred  but  once 
a  year,  and  had  one  or  two  young  at  a  birth.     After  the  birth  of  the  young 
the   buck   was   particularly   ferocious,  and  if  approached   often   killed    its 
offspring. 


452 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS 


THE  MOOSE. 

The  moose  was  also  found  in  that  country,  but  not  in  such  numbers  as  the 
elk.  It  belonged  to  the  same  family  and  closely  resembled  it,  except  that  it 
had  a  flaghorn  with  which  it  shoveled  away  the  snow  in  order  to  obtain 
food  during  the  winter. 

The  black-tailed  deer  was  also  plentiful,  it  was  found  in  the  mountains, 


ROCKY  MOUNTAIN  BUCK. 


and  timber  along  the  streams.  Its  meat  was  fine  and  nutritious.  The  hide 
was  of  but  little  value.  They  did  not  go  in  herds,  except  in  cold  weather. 
They  had  two  fawns  at  a  birth,  which  were  born  in  the  spring,  and  the 
young  could  run  as  fast  as  their  mother,  immediately  after  birth.  The  same 
may  be  said  of  the  white-tailed  deer,  which  was  easily  killed.  Its  meat 
was  coarse,  dry,  and  unpalatable,  but  its  hide  was  the  best  of  the  entire 
family. 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS.  453 

MOUNTAIN  SHEEP. 

The  mountain  sheep  was  a  peculiar  animal,  having  the  habits  of  the 
chamois,  living  only  on  the  highest  peaks  of  the  mountains.  The  horns  of 
the  bucks  were  immense;  it  is  claimed  by  some  hunters  that  the  buck  when 
pursued  jumped  from  a  precipice,  and  landed  on  its  horns,  instead  of  feet. 
This  I  do  not  believe,  for  the  females  had  no  horns,  besides  Nature  does  not 
provide  such  marked  advantages  for  the  male  portion  of  any  of  the  animal 
kingdom.  They  did  not  in  any  way  resemble  our  domestic  sheep,  either  in 
habits  or  appearance.  The  hair  was  straight  and  thick,  of  a  dirty  gray,  and 
was  useless  for  anjT  purposes  of  manufacture.  In  size  they  were  larger  than 
the  common  goat,  which  they  somewhat  resembled  in  appearance.  They 
were  exceedingly  nimble  and  sure-footed,  and  jumped  with  great  rapidity 
from  crag  to  crag  when  pursued  by  the  mountain  lion  and  other  carnivorous 
beasts.  The  home  of  this  animal  seemed  to  be  among  barren  rocks,  where 
little  vegetation  grew.  Yet  when  secured  by  the  hunter  they  were  always 
fat  and  in  good  condition.  There  was  no  water  where  they  roamed,  but 
snow  was  perpetual  in  the  valleys  below  them,  and  this  supplied  the  neces- 
sary drink.  They  went  in  herds  numbering  from  one  to  two  hundred. 
Living  as  they  did  in  such  isolated  places,  it  was  exceedingly  difficult  to 
find  or  kill  them. 


THE  BEAVER. 

The  beaver  was  found  throughout  this  entire  country  in  all  the  rivers  in 
which  they  could  live.  I  make  this  exception  because  some  of  the  rivers 
were  so  filled  with  alkaline  matter  and  other  impurities,  that  no  animal  life 
could  exist  in  them.  To  these  animals  we  are  more  indebted  for  early  dis- 
coveries in  this  region  than  to  any  other  cause.  It  was  the  beaver  that  gave 
rise  to  the  formation  of  the  various  fur  companies,  who  organized  expeditions 
for  their  capture.  Their  skins  at  that  time  brought  in  the  market  twenty 
dollars  each  in  gold. 

This  animal  is  worthy  of  note  on  account  of  its  remarkable  intelligence 
and  curious  habits.  They  assembled  on  the  banks  of  clear-flowing  streams 
on  which  was  situated  a  growth  of  cotton  wood  timber,  and  with  their  sharp 
cutting  teeth,  two  of  which  are  in  the  upper  and  two  in  the  lower  jaw,  cut 
down  a  tree  a  foot  and  a  half  in  diameter,  in  a  short  time,  taking  out  chips 
with  their  teeth,  four  or  five  inches  in  length  and  two  or  three  inches  in 
breadth,  the  result  of  their  labor  being  equal  to  the  work  of  the  best  woods- 
man with  a  sharp  axe.  They  always  fell  the  tree  in  the  direction  of  the 


454  TWENTY   YEARS  AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 

stream,  so  that  as  much  of  it  would  fall  into  the  water  as  possible,  and  they 
could  cut  down  the  entire  forest  along  the  river  bank  in  a  short  time. 

When  the  trees  were  felled  it  did  not  take  them  long  to  cut  them  in 
lengths  sufficient  for  use  in  building  dams  across  the  river.  Then  with  their 
tails  and  paws  the  beaver  moved  the  logs  into  the  stream,  placing  them 
in  position,  much  the  same  as  an  engineer  would  in  building  a  dam  that  was 
expected  to  sustain  the  pressure  of  a  large  body  of  water.  Beaver  dams 
were  built  in  crescent  shape,  the  crescent  being  up  the  streams,  and  were 
built  in  the  fall  of  the  year.  These  animals  built  dams  in  the  mountain 
streams  that  were  sometimes  twenty  feet  in  height,  forming  a  pond  above 
the  darn  twenty  feet  deep,  and  from  ten  to  a  hundred  ftet  in  width,  the 
dams  being  so  securely  constructed  that  they  withstood  the  severe  freshets  of 
spring.  In  the  pond  above  the  dam  they  stored  cottonwood,  on  which  they 
partly  subsisted  during  the  winter. 

Their  habitations  were  in  the  ground,  or  bank,  near  the  river,  and  were  built 
a  sufficient  distance  to  protect  them  from  encroachment  either  by  water  or 
their  natural  enemies  (the  principal  of  which  was  man).  The  mouth  of  the 
tunnel  leading  to  the  beaver's  home  was  deep  down  in  the  water  of  the  pond 
above  the  dam.  It  was  then  dug  upward  above  the  level  of  the  water,  when 
it  made  a  sharp  turn  downward,  going  below  the  water  level.  Again  it 
made  a  turn  upward,  going  above  the  surface  until  it  reached  the  bank 
where  it  had  its  home.  Its  habitation  was  the  most  ingenious  in  construc- 
tion that  can  be  imagined.  The  beds  were  located  on  the  sides  so  that  one 
or  two  beavers  could  lie  comfortably  in  a  bed.  The  animal  required  a  bed  of 
considerable  length,  for  a  full-grown  beaver,  tail  and  all,  was  from  four  to 
five  feet  in  length.  Its  tail  was  from  one  foot  to  eighteen  inches  long,  and 
was  unlike  the  tail  of  another  animal,  being  stiff,  so  that  it  required  a 
special  place  for  its  reception  to  enable  its  owner  to  lie  comfortably. 

The  beaver's  tail,  next  to  its  cutting  teeth,  was  its  greatest  tool.  It  was 
its  means  for  transporting  logs,  dirt,  and  heavy  substances,  it  was  also  used 
as  a  hoe,  trowel,  and  broom. 

The  beaver  was  the  most  affectionate  of  animals,  as  well  as  one  of  the 
most  knowing,  and  were  fond  of  playing  with  their  young  in  the  water,  it 
was  interesting  to  watch  them  unobserved.  They  indulged  in  all  sorts  of 
antics  with  their  young,  turning  somersaults,  swimming  with  great  rapid- 
ity, jumping  out  of  the  water  and  then  diving  head  first,  cutting  such  capers 
as  only  a  beaver  can.  Trappers  in  olden  days  used  to  lie  for  hours  watching 
them  in  their  sportive  moods,  and  then  shoot  them  at  a  favorable  opportunity. 

The  manner  of  trapping  the  beaver  was  by  means  of  an  ordinary  trap,  pat- 
terned like  the  modern  steel  rat-trap,  only  stronger  and  without  teeth  in  its 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS.  455 

jaws.  A  heavy  chain  was  attached  to  it  this  was  fastened  to  a  stone,  a 
tree,  or  a  stick  firmly  driven  into  the  g  ound.  The  trapper  entered  the 
stream  some  distance  above  where  he  intended  to  place  his  trap,  and  waded 
to  the  spot  he  had  selected  for  it.  H^  «uus  prevented  these  intelligent  ani- 
mals from  scenting  his  trail.  After  setting  his  trap  at  the  bottom  of  the 
pond,  he  placed  near  it  a  stick  of  sufficient  length  to  reach  above  the  surface 
of  the  water.  On  the  exposed  end  of  this  stick  was  tied  dried  castor  of  the 
beaver,  this  had  a  strong  musky  smell,  resembling  that  of  the  musk  deer. 
As  soon  as  the  beaver  appeared  above  the  water  and  scented  the  castor  it 
immediately  swam  to  the  stick;  then  following  it  with  his  nose  to  the  bot- 
tom was  caught  in  the  trap  by  one  of  its  legs.  The  smell  of  the  castor 
seemed  to  cause  this  wily  animal  to  lose  all  sense  of  its  surroundings.  If  the 
beaver  did  not  drown,  it  would  sometimes  gnaw  its  foot  off  to  escape. 

The  foot  of  the  beaver  was  webbed  and  was  used  for  swimming.  They 
also  had  nails  with  which  they  scratched  the  earth  in  a  similar  manner  of 
the  mole  or  badger.  Their  meat  was  juicy  and  resembled  fresh  pork.  They 
were  exceedingly  wild,  and  their  sense  of  smell  was  very  acute.  At  the 
slightest  approach  of  danger  they  dove  deep  into  the  pond,  rarely  if 
ever,  entering  the  tunnel  leading  to  their  home,  if  there  was  the  slightest 
chance  of  being  observed.  The  beaver  was  as  much  at  home  on  land  as  in  the 
water,  and  when  on  the  ground  was  in  constant  motion.  However,  it  never 
strayed  far  from  the  water. 


THE  OTTER. 

The  otter  was  perhaps  the  most  valuable  of  all  the  fur- bearing  animals  of 
America,  on  account  of  the  richness  and  fineness  of  its  fur.  This  animal 
measured  about  two  and  one-half  feet  from  its  nose  to  the  root  of  its  tail.  It 
lived  almost  exclusively  on  fish,  but  when  hungry  it  ate  frogs,  snakes,  and 
other  small  animals.  It  was  admirably  adapted  by  nature  for  pursuing  and 
catching  fish.  Its  body  was  lithe,  and  its  toes  so  broadly  webbed  that  it 
was  able  to  propel  itself  with  great  speed  through  the  water.  The  tail  was 
long,  and  was  used  as  a  rudder  to  direct  its  movements  in  the  water;  while  its 
short,  powerful  legs  were  so  loosely  jointed  that  the  animal  could  turn  them 
in  almost  any  direction  with  ease.  The  hair  on  its  body  and  limbs  was  of 
two  kinds;  a  close,  fine  soft  fur,  lying  next  to  the  skin  protected  the  animal 
against  heat  and  cold;  the  other  composed  of  long,  shining,  coarse  hair, 
permitted  the  animal  to  glide  easily  through  the  water.  Its  teeth  were  very 
sharp  and  strong,  and  when  diving  for  fish  it  rarely  missed  its  prey.  In 


456  TWENTY   YEARS  AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 

color  it  varied  somewhat,  but  was  generally  of  a  rich  brown,  intermixed  with 
whitish  gray. 

The  otter  made  its  habitation  along  the  banks  of  rivers  and  streams,  gen- 
erally in  some  natural  crevice,  or  deserted  excavation.  If  these  could  not  be 
found,  it  made  a  hole  for  itself.  The  entrance  to  the  holes  or  burrows  were 
always  below  the  surface  of  the  water.  When  alarmed,  the  mother  otter 
with  her  young  plunged  into  the  stream,  taking  refuge  amid  the  vegetation, 
or  anything  that  afforded  shelter;  but  as  they  could  not  remain  under  water 
for  a  great  length  of  time,  they  often  came  to  the  surface  for  air.  This  they 
did  by  putting  their  noses  above  the  surface,  filling  their  lungs,  then  disap- 
pearing again. 

The  otter  was  a  remarkable  fighter  and  could  defeat  almost  any  animal  of 
its  size.  In  righting  a  dog,  it  required  but  a  short  time  to  cut  the  flesh  of 
its  opponent  to  shreds  with  its  sharp  teeth.  They  were  prolific,  and  had  from 
three  to  five  young  at  a  birth.  The  young  made  their  appearance  early  in 
spring,  about  March  or  April,  and  at  first  were  nursed  by  the  mother,  but 
were  soon  turned  adrift  to  obtain  their  own  living.  They  were  extremely  fond 
of  play,  both  young  and  old  went  to  an  inclined  bank  of  a  river,  sliding  into 
the  stream  on  their  wet  bodies.  The  trappers  called  these  places  "otter 
slides."  At  the  bottom  of  the  slides  he  placed  his  traps  into  which  the  otter 
plunged,  becoming  prisoners.  Like  the  beaver,  when  caught  in  traps  it 
would  sometimes  gnaw  off  its  foot  to  regain  its  freedom. 

The  beaver  and  otter  were  the  most  sought  after  by  the  different  fur 
companies  of  all  the  animals  in  that  great  country.  About  the  same  means 
were  employed  in  capturing  them,  and  both  were  trapped  for  at  the  same 
time.  The  otter  did  not  go  to  the  ponds  like  the  beaver,  but  was  found 
almost  everywhere.  The  meat  of  the  otter  was  never  considered  a  palatable 
dish.  As  it  lived  on  fish  largely,  its  flesh  had  a  strong,  fish}'  flavor.  These 
animals  were  prized  only  for  their  fine  fur.  In  the  early  days  the  otter  was 
found  in  great  abundance,  but  in  latter  years  became  scarce. 

Among  the  Indians  their  pelts  were  much  prized.  They  used  them  for 
making  medicine  bags,  pouches,  and  articles  of  ornament.  Having  only 
limited  means  for  capturing  them,  and  the  otter  was  so  wary  that  it  was 
difficult  for  the  red  men  to  secure  them  at  all.  When  they  did,  it  was 
usually  at  an  otter  slide,  where  they  waited  for  days  at  a  time,  patiently 
watching  for  an  opportunity  to  shoot  them.  Then,  if  they  did  not  kill  it 
instantly,  the  animal  disappeared  in  the  water,  dragging  itself  off  to  its 
hole,  where  it  died.  After  death  the  others  dragged  the  remains  into  the 
stream  to  float  away  with  the  current. 


TWENTY   YEARS    AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS.  45? 


CHAPTER    LIV. 

BEARS   AND   THEIR  WAYS— ADVENTURES   WITH    GRIZZLIES— AN    EXCITING 
FIGHT  AND  A  RACE  FOR  LIFE. 

The  Black  Bear — Its  Home,  Habits  and  Food — Fondness  for  Honey — Tenacity  of  Life 
— The  Bear  as  a  Boxer — How  Indians  Secured  Them — Four  Bears  Equal  to  One 
Scalp — Tearing  out  the  Entrails  of  a  Dog  at  one  Blow — The  Cinnamon  Bear — Its 
Peculiarities — A  Puzzle  to  Naturalists — The  Grizzly  Bear — The  Largest  and  Most 
Formidable  Bear  in  Existence — Its  Awkward  Gait — Why  the  Grizzly  was  called 
"Sambo" — Avoided  by  Mountaineers — Indians  Killing  a  Grizzly — A  Memorable 
Fight  With  a  Grizzly — Starting  Him  Up  in  the  Underbrush — An  Exciting 
Time— An  Enraged  Bear — The  Fight  On — A  Race  for  Life — A  Narrow  Escape — 
Tormented  by  Dogs — Fourteen  Bullets  in  Sambo's  Body — Killed  at  Last. 

ALTHOUGH  the  bear  family  is  at  home  in  many  parts  of  the  world,  there 
are  but  three  varieties  indigenous  to  our  country,  viz. :  the  black,  the  cinna- 
mon, and  the  grizzly. 

Of  these  the  black  bear  was  the  most  common,  and  was  smaller  in  size 
than  the  cinnamon  or  grizzly,  usually  weighing  from  two  to  four  hundred 
pounds.  Its  coat  was  soft  and  the  fur  thick  and  long.  Tt  is  clumsy  in  ap- 
pearance, with  a  thick-set  body,  short,  stout  legs,  though  it  is  active  and 
vigilant  and  had  great  strength  it  could  scarcely  be  called  a  ferocious  ani- 
mal, for  it  always  avoided  man.  It  changed  its  haunts  with  the  seasons,  in 
the  spring  living  on  roots  and  juicy  plants  found  in  the  vicinity  of  streams, 
ponds,  and  lakes,  during  summer  spending  most  of  its  time  in  the  under- 
brush, where  it  fed  on  berries,  bugs,  frogs,  and  such  small  animals  as  it 
could  procure.  In  the  fall  it  sought  higher  ground,  and  fed  on  wild  fruits, 
acorns,  and  nuts.  It  is  extremely  fond  of  honey,  and  in  its  rambles 
through  the  woods,  being  an  excellent  climber,  it  never  passed  a  bee  tree 
without  robbing  it  of  its  store  of  sweets.  Although  living  for  the  most  part 
on  vegetable  food,  it  was  also  carnivorous;  but  it  would  not  eat  meat  which 
was  tainted,  unless  pressed  by  hunger.  Notwithstanding  its  clumsy  gait  it 
could  run  rapidly,  and  when  closely  pursued  would,  whenever  possible, 
take  to  a  tree.  It  is  also  a  good  swimmer,  crossing  rivers  with  ease.  Its 
cubs  were  dropped  in  the  spring,  and  were  as  frolicsome  as  kittens  in  their 
play.  By  the  time  cold  weather  set  in,  the  cubs  had  attained  fully  two- 
thirds  of  their  growth,  and  when  hibernating  were  fat  and  in  good  condition 
to  remain  in  a  torpid  state  until  the  return  of  spring. 


458  TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR    HOSTILE   INDIANS. 

When  hibernating,  these  animals  generally  hid  themselves  in  the  hollow 
of  an  old  tree,  or  in  caves  and  crevices,  where  they  remained  undisturbed 
until  spring.  Sometimes  the  heavy  snows  and  ice  imprisoned  them  until 
long  after  the  usual  time  for  making  their  appearance. 

When  an  Indian  secured  a  bear  he  regarded  it  as  a  great  prize;  first,  for 
its  skin,  which  made  a  beautiful  robe;  next,  for  its  claws  and  teeth,  which 
were  used  as  ornaments;  next,  for  its  meat,  which  was  the  red  man's  pork, 
and  with  him  was  a  dainty  dish;  and  last,  though  not  least,  is  the  fact  that 
when  an  Indian  had  killed  four  bears  it  was  considered  equal  to  taking  an 
enemy's  scalp.  This  was  considered  by  them  equal  to  counting  a  coup. 

The  black  bear  was  to  a  certain  extent  migratory  in  its  habits,  and  be- 
fore very  severe  winters  set  in  they  sometimes  moved  southward  in 
large  numbers.  It  was  sagacious  in  escaping  the  hunter,  but  when 
wounded  would,  like  all  the  bear  family,  fight  to  the  death.  It  was  dexter- 
ous in  the  use  of  its  forepaws,  and  when  fighting  it  stood  on  its  hind  legs 
boxing  after  the  manner  of  an  athlete.  With  one  blow  of  its  sharp 
claws  it  could  tear  out  the  entrails  of  a  dog.  All  the  bear  family  have  very 
strong  jaws,  with  which  they  can  crush  any  small  animal. 

The  cinnamon  bear  in  form  and  size,  as  well  as  in  its  habits,  much  resem- 
bled its  cousin,  the  black  bear.  It  was  larger,  however,  more  fierce  and 
dangerous  when  molested ;  but,  like  most  of  the  bear  family,  it  was  com- 
paratively harmless  if  let  alone.  The  larger  specimens  of  this  animal  meas- 
ure from  nose  to  tail  over  five  and  a  half  feet,  and  in  height  a  little  over 
three  feet.  It  lived  largely  on  berries,  roots,  and  vegetable  food,  though  it 
by  no  means  disdained  flesh  when  it  could  get  it.  It  never  voluntarily  at- 
tacked man,  but  retired  on  seeing  him ;  but,  if  cornered  or  wounded,  it  was 
about  as  ugly  a  customer  and  gritty  a  fighter  as  could  be  found. 

Its  hair  was  softer  and  thicker  than  that  of  the  black  bear ;  under  it  the 
fur  was  finer  in  texture  and  considerably  longer.  Naturalists  are  generally 
agreed  that  the  cinnamon  is  not  a  different  specie  of  bear,  but  is  a  distinct 
variety.  The  idea  once  prevalent  that  it  was  a  cross  between  the  grizzly 
and  the  black  bear,  has  long  since  been  rejected.  It  was  sometimes  known 
as  the  silver-tip  bear,  on  account  of  the  silvery  color  of  the  hair  at  the  ex- 
tremity of  its  stunted  tail.  It  has  never  been  found  near  the  seacoast,  or  in 
any  place  far  removed  from  the  vicinity  of  the  Rocky  Mountains.  It  is  also 
a  northern  animal,  not  being  found  as  far  south  as  Texas.  Its  natural 
habitat  was  west  and  north  of  the  Missouri  River,  in  the  direction  of  the  cold 
and  barren  regions  of  the  northwest.  It  is  found  in  no  other  part  of  the 
world.  Its  existence  was  unknown  to  naturalists  until  the  advent  in  that 
region  of  the  fur  trappers  and  hunters.  They  purchased  a  bear's  skin  from 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS.  459 

the  Indians,  which  was  of  a  pale  reddish  brown;  this  the  Indians  said  was 
from  an  animal  entirely  distinct  from  the  grizzly  bear.  This  led  to  inquir} 
as  to  the  different  species  or  varieties  of  bears  in  that  region.  The  Indians 
showed  the  different  kinds  of  bear  skins  they  had,  and  persisted  in  saying 
that  there  were  three  kinds  of  bears  in  their  territory,  viz. :  the  grizzly,  the 
extremities  of  whose  hair  were  of  a  white  or  frosty  color;  the  black  bear, 
and  another  bear,  having  white  hairs  in  his  light  red  dish -brown  coat. 

The  cinnamon  bear  had  long  been  known  to  the  trappers  and  fur  traders 
before  white  settlers  entered  that  territory,  and  the  skins  of  these  ani- 
mals, on  account  of  the  fineness  of  the  fur,  were  much  sought  after  and  were 
more  valuable  than  those  of  the  black  bear. 

The  grizzly  bear  was  the  largest  and  most  formidable  of  any  of  the  bear 
family  whose  habitat  was  in  the  West,  sometimes  attaining  the  length  of 
nine  feet  and  weighing  ten  to  twelve  hundred  pounds.  Specimens  have 
been  shown  weighing  as  high  as  eighteen  hundred,  and  even  two  thousand 
pounds.  Its  habitat  were  about  the  same  as  that  of  the  cinnamon  bear. 

The  coat  of  this  animal  was  of  a  dirty  brown,  or  grizzly  gray,  whence  it 
derived  its  name.  Its  claws  were  long  and  large,  measuring  seven  or  eight 
inches,  sharp  and  gouge-shaped,  and  were  used  with  terrible  effect  in  strik- 
ing down  or  tearing  its  prey.  They  were  also  of  great  efficiency  in  digging 
for  roots.  With  its  sharp  claws  the  grizzly  would  at  one  blow  tear  the  en- 
trails from  a  buffalo,  ox,  or  horse.  Like  its  cousins,  it  was  a  great  boxer, 
and  used  its  forepaws  with  tremendous  effect  when  in  battle.  In  moving,  it 
had  a  shambling,  clumsy,  gait,  its  head  constantly  swaying  from  side  to 
side.  Its  color  ranged  from  brown  to  nearly  black,  and  sometimes  to  almost 
white.  It  confined  itself  exclusively  to  the  Rocky  Mountain  regions  and  the 
plains  adjacent  thereto,  where  the  grizzly  made  its  haunts,  the  black  and 
the  cinnamon  bears  were  scarce.  From  this  I  conclude  that  it  was  con- 
stantly at  war  with  the  other  two  members  of  the  family.  All  other  ani- 
mals retreated  from  the  presence  of  this  ferocious  beast. 

The  grizzly  bear  may  be  called  the  king  of  American  wild  beasts,  for  it 
occupied  the  same  relation  to  the  wild  beasts  of  North  America  that  the  lion 
does  to  those  of  Africa,  or  the  tiger  to  those  of  Asia.  In  fact,  I  believe  that 
neither  of  these  latter  would  be  a  match  in  combat  with  it,  for,  unlike  them, 
it  not  only  had  jaws  that  were  large  and  powerful  enough  to  crush  almost 
any  animal  at  one  bite,  with  its  chisel-like  claws  could  tear  open  the  hide  of 
the  largest  animal  with  a  single  blow. 

Next  to  taking  the  scalp  of  an  enemy,  the  Indians  considered  the  killing 
of  a  grizzly  bear  their  greatest  feat.  They  greatly  prized  the  long  claws, 
the  large,  sharp  teeth,  and  great  warm  robe.  They  wore  the  claws  as  or- 


460  TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 

• 

naments  around  their  necks,  and  were  fond  of  boasting  of  their  battles  and 
hair-breadth  escapes  in  killing  this  powerful  beast.  When  the  Indians 
knew  that  a  grizzly  bear  was  in  their  vicinity,  the  men,  mounted  their 
best  horses  and  armed  with  their  best  arms,  went  in  parties  to  give  it 
battle. 

Among  the  mountaineers  and  plainsmen  the  grizzly  was  known  as 
Sambo,  a  name  given  to  it  because  of  the  resemblance  of  its  hind  foot  to  that 
of  a  negro.  The  old  mountaineers  and  plainsmen,  unless  they  were  a 
strong  party,  gave  Sambo  a  wide  berth.  The  meat  was  unfit  for  human 
food,  being  rank,  strong,  tough,  and  stringy,  especially  in  an  old  one,  but 
the  flesh  of  the  cubs  of  three  or  four  months  could  be  eaten  if  it  was  allowed 
to  hang  in  the  open  air  for  several  days.  The  cub  of  a  grizzly  bear,  no  mat- 
ter at  how  early  an  age  it  was  captured,  could  neither  be  tamed  nor  trusted. 

At  the  foot  of  Medicine  Bow  Mountain,  on  a  creek  of  that  name,  I  once 
had  a  few  well-mounted  cavalrymen,  half  a  dozen  Indians,  and  a  pack  of 
good  hunting  dogs.  Three  or  four  of  the  dogs  were  greyhounds,  two  or  three 
were  fox  hounds,  and  the  remainder  were  common-bred  animals.  I  sent  a 
few  of  the  troops  with  some  of  the  dogs  into  the  thicket  to  start  a  grizzly, 
for  they  were  plentiful  there  at  that  time.  In  a  short  time  after  entering  the 
dense  underbrush  the  fox  hounds  set  up  their  yell,  and  Sambo  soon  appeared 
in  the  open  where  we  gave  him  battle.  After  he  had  received  one  or  two 
flesh  wounds,  he  became  furious  and  made  an  attack  on  one  of  the  Indians. 
The  latter  was  mounted  on  a  good  horse  and  fled  at  the  top  of  his  speed,  all 
hands  and  the  dogs  following  at  full  cry. 

In  attempting  to  escape  from  the  bear,  the  Indian  rode  his  horse  up  the 
smooth  side  of  a  butte  for  almost  half  a  mile,  until  nearing  the  top  and 
knowing  that  he  must  go  over  a  precipice  or  turn  back,  he  chose  the  latter 
alternative.  As  soon  as  he  turned,  the  grizzly  turned  also,  when  the  whole 
party  of  pursuers  scattered  in  every  direction.  The  Indian,  knowing  the 
character  of  the  grizzly,  ran  his  horse  down  the  face  of  the  butte  with  all  his 
speed,  lashing  him  at  every  jump.  The  bear  was  so  close  to  him  that  at 
almost  every  leap  he  struck  with  one  of  his  fore  paws  at  the  horse.  Finding 
that  he  could  not  outrun  the  bear  down  the  hill,  the  Indian  opened  his 
blanket  and  threw  it  in  the  bear's  face,  completely  blinding  him  for  a  few 
seconds.  Bruin  made  short  work  of  the  blanket  and  was  soon  in  pursuit  of 
his  intended  victim  again.  Seeing  the  Indian's  perilous  situation,  I  directed 
some  of  the  troops  to  open  fire  on  the  grizzly.  Some  of  the  bullets  must 
have  passed  close  to  the  Indian,  for  he  yelled  at  the  top  of  his  voice,  while 
making  directly  for  a  creek  a  short  distance  from  the  bottom  of  the  butte. 
On  reaching  the  water,  the  bear  plunged  in  to  cool  himself,  and  the  Indian 
made  his  escape.  Then  began  the  real  fight. 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS.  461 

While  the  bear  was  in  the  creek,  one  of  the  greyhounds  came  too  near  him 
and  the  bear  with  a  stroke  as  swift  as  lightning  hit  him  in  the  side  with  its 
paw,  and  with  its  sharp  claws  tore  out  the  dog's  entrails,  killing  him  on 
the  spot.  After  this  we  fought  the  bear  out  of  the  water  on  to  the  plain  where 
for  two  hours,  we  had  some  royal  sport.  The  greyhounds  showed  their  great 
value  and  peculiar  cunning  in  fighting  it.  They  would  never  get  near  its 
paws,  but  at  every  opportunity  one  of  them  jumped  at  and  snapped  the  bear's 
hips,  springing  away  instantly,  while  another  then  repeated  the  operation. 
When  the  grizzly  turned  to  strike  its  tormenter,  a  dog  from  the  other  side 
made  a  snap  at  it  in  the  same  way.  In  this  manner  the  bear  was  kept  turn- 
ing from  one  side  to  the  other  constantly,  and  not  permitted  to  get  away. 
After  a  fight  of  two  hours,  we  succeeded  in  killing  it,  some  twelve  or 
fourteen  bullets  had  been  fired  into  its  body.  No  animal  ever  fought  with 
more  ferocity  than  that  bear.  It  was  particularly  annoyed  by  the  arrows  the. 
Indians  fired  into  it,  and  grabbed  the  shaft  of  the  arrow  with  its  mouth, 
standing  on  its  hind  legs,  fighting  the  stick  as  though  fighting  the  enemy, 
It  was  a  fine  specimen  and  weighed  about  eleven  hundred  pounds. 

After  the  death  of  Bruin,  every  Indian  in  the  party  made  a  mad  rush  for 
the  carcass,  and,  jumping  from  their  horses,  each  made  an  effort  to  be  the 
first  to  strike  it  with  his  hands.  There  was  great  excitement,  much  loud 
talk,  and  wild  gesticulations  among  them.  Upon  making  inquiries  as  to 
what  the  row  meant,  I  found  they  were  wrangling  among  themselves  as  to 
who  was  entitled  to  the  honor  of  striking  the  carcass  first,  and  were  also  con- 
tending as  to  who  should  have  the  claws,  the  teeth  and  skin. 


462  TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 


CHAPTER  LV. 

JIM  BRIDGER,  FAMOUS  SCOUT,  GUIDE,  FRONTIERSMAN,  AND  INDIAN  FIGHTER 
—PERSONAL  EXPERIENCES  WITH  HIM. 

A  Typical  Frontiersman— Trapper,  and  Famous  Indian  Fighter— An  Unerring  Guide — 
His  Skill  as  a  Trailer— The  Man  who  Trained  Kit  Carson— Bridger's  Wit  and  Humor 
—Some  Characteristic  Anecdotes— The  Invisible  Mountain— A  Thrilling  and  Fatal 
Adventure — Telling  the  Story  of  his  own  Death — Bridger's  Strange  Manner  of  Liv- 
ing— Unable  to  Read,  but  could  Quote  from  Shakespeare — A  H'2;h-Priced  Book — 
Bridger  at  the  Battle  of  Powder  River — '-A  Mean  Camp  " — His  Visit  to  the  Presi- 
dent— What  Bridger  thought  of  Him — A  Gang  of  Desperadoes  Discomfited — My 
Winter  with  Him — His  Queer  Habits — Going  to  Bed  at  all  Hours — Cooking  his 
Meals  in  the  Middle  of  the  Night — Singing  "  Injun  " — Bridger  in  Battle  with  the 
Utes,  Killing  and  Scalping  a  Ute  in  a  Hand-to-Hand  Conflict — Challenging  an 
Arapahoe — What  Followed. 

DURING  my  long  and  varied  experiences  in  the  pathless  wilds  of  the  West, 
it  was  my  good  fortune  to  have  met  some  of  the  most  noted  trappers,  moun- 
taineers, plainsmen,  frontiersmen,  and  guides  in  that  country,  and  to  have 
been  associated  with  them  in  various  ways.  Many  of  these  men  were  fam- 
ous throughout  that  country.  They  were  as  much  a  part  of  its  wild  life  as  were 
the  savage  Indians,  wild  animals,  mountains,  rivers,  and  forests,  some  of  them 
were  of  invaluable  service  to  the  pioneers  who  first  entered  that  unknown 
region,  as  well  as  to  the  army,  in  guiding  the  troops  when  in  pursuit  of  the 
savages.  I  think,  therefore,  a  brief  sketch  of  the  most  noted  of  these  will 
not  be  uninteresting  to  my  intellectual  reader. 

James  Bridger,  or,  as  he  was  familiarly  spoken  of  in  that  country,  "Old 
Jim  Bridger,"  was  the  most  efficient  guide,  mountaineer,  plainsman,  trap- 
per and  Indian  fighter  that  ever  lived  in  the  Far  West.  He  knew  more  of 
that  country  and  all  things  within  its  borders  than  any  one  who  ever  lived. 
He  had  been  a  trapper  for  various  Fur  Companies,  and  had  trapped  on  his 
own  account  for  many  years,  long  before  the  foot  of  a  white  settler  entered 
that  territory,  having  trapped  from  the  mouth  to  the  source  of  nearly  all  its 
rivers  and  streams.  Although  Bridger  had  little  or  no  education,  he  could, 
with  a  piece  of  charcoal  or  a  stick,  scratch  on  the  ground  or  any  smooth  sur- 
face a  map  of  the  whole  western  country  that  was  much  more  correct  than 
(  those  made  at  that  time  by  skilled  topographical  engineers,  with  all  their 
scientific  instruments.  I  have  seen  Bridger  look  at  a  printed  map,  and 


TWENTY    YEARS    AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE    INDIANS.  463 

point  out  its  defects  at  sight.  His  experience  in  that  country  was  not  con- 
fined to  a  few  nations  and  tribes  of  Indians.  He  knew  more  about  them, 
their  habits,  customs,  and  characters,  than  any  man  who  ever  lived  in  all 
that  region.  On  no  occasion  would  he  trust  an  Indian.  His  disgust  for 
them  knew  no  bounds.  He  called  them  "sarpints,"  "varmints,"  and 
"pizen."'  He  maintained  that  a  rattlesnake  was  of  some  good,  but  that  an 
Indian  was  good  for  nothing.  He  prided  himself  on  the  fact  that  in  any- 
thing the  "sarpints"  (meaning  the  Indians,  not  the  rattlesnake)  did,  he 
(Bridger)  could  outdo  them.  He  was  a  marvelous  trailer — unquestionably 
the  most  expert  that  ever  lived.  Even  when  old,  and  with  dimmed  eyesight, 
he  could  run  a  trail,  when  mounted,  as  fast  as  his  horse  could  carry  him. 

The  trappers,  when  trapping,  as  a  rule,  took  but  little  notice  of  the  water- 
courses, canons,  foothills  or  mountains.  Bridger,  on  the  other  hand,  was 
careful  to  note  the  lay  of  all  these,  and  this  habit  of  keen  observation  and 
the  knowledge  it  brought  subsequently  served  him  well  when  guiding  ex- 
peditions through  the  pathless  western  wilds.  He  noticed  every  feature  of 
the  country,  especially  its  configuration,  and  possessing,  as  he  did,  a  reten- 
tive memory,  he  could  invariably  recall  all  landmarks  with  unerring  accur- 
acy, even  though  he  had  not  seen  them  for  years. 

Bridger  hardly  knew  his  birthplace.  He  was  scarcely  able  to  write  his 
name,  although  his  wonderful  memory  and  natural  abilities  served  him  so 
well  that  he  was  much  respected  by  army  officers  and  by  the  authorities  at 
Washington,  as  well  as  by  all  whites  with  whom  he  came  in  contact.  The 
Indians  also  learned  to  respect  and  fear  him.  When  an  important  military 
expedition  was  planned,  Bridger's  services  were  secured  whenever  possible. 
The  most  important  man  on  these  campaigns  was  the  guide,  for  on  him 
everything  depended,  even  the  very  existence  of  the  command.  Should  he 
lead  into  ambush,  or  where  there  was  no  water  or  fuel,  the  command  might 
perish.  The  majority  of  the  guides  in  that  country  at  that  time  were  brave 
and  in  the  front  when  marching,  until  Indians  were  sighted  or  the  trail  be- 
came very  pronounced,  when  they  were  somehow  generally  found  in  the 
rear.  Not  so  with  Bridger.  He  was  always  at  the  front.  It  was  necessary 
at  all  times  for  the  guide  to  be  acquainted  with,  and  on  the  lookout  for  traps 
laid  by  wily  savages,  and  to  know  how  to  guard  against  them  to  prevent  the 
troops  from  being  outgeneraled.  While  Bridger  had  ample  caution,  he  had 
the  courage  of  a  lion.  In  that  country,  in  opposing  the  cunning  savage,  an 
army  of  deer  led  by  a  lion  was  worth  more  than  an  army  of  lions  led  by  a 
deer,  and  Bridger  was  the  leader. 

Bridger  was  an  old  man  when  I  last  saw  him,  about  seventy-six  years  of 
age,  and  a  great  sufferer  from  goitre,  brought  on  by  the  long  use  of  P^OW 


464  TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 

water.  In  some  of  his  many  engagements  with  the  red  men  he  received 
three  arrow  wounds  in  his  back,  and  was  in  consequence  unable  to  straighten 
himself  without  suffering  great  pain.  He  was  also  badly  ruptured,  and  I 
could  scarcely  understand  how  he  rode  a  horse  at  all.  Yet  with  all  his 
bodily  infirmities  he  was  cheerful  and  ready  to  do  valiant  service  at  all 
times.  The  government  appreciated  his  services  so  highly  that  he  frequently 
received  twenty-five  dollars  per  day,  his  rations,  horse,  arms  and  quarters, 
while  in  its  service.  It  was  Bridger  who  first  brought  Kit  Carson  to  the 
notice  of  General  John  C.  Fremont,  who  made  Carson  famous.  I  have  seen 
Carson  take  his  orders  and  instructions  from  Bridger  as  a  soldier  does  from 
his  commanding  officer.  Some  of  the  most  skillful  guides  and  famous 
mountaineers  in  the  western  country  were  trained  by  Bridger. 

Bridger  was  first  employed  by  the  Rocky  Mountain  Fur  Company  when  a 
boy  but  eleven  or  twelve  years  old,  and,  after  working  for  this  and  other  Fur 
Companies,  he  was  given  charge  of  a  trapping  party,  which  position  he  re- 
tained until  he  engaged  in  the  same  business  for  himself,  at  which  he 
amassed  quite  a  fortune. 

Fort  Bridger,  situated  on  Ham's  Fork,  a  branch  of  Green  River,  Wyo- 
ming, was  originally  established  by  him  as  a  trading  post,  and  was,  at  the 
time  of  its  establishment,  probably  the  farthest  outpost  occupied  by  a  white 
man.  Here  Bridger  kept  supplies,  and  traded  with  the  Utesand  other  tribes 
of  Indians  who  occupied  or  visited  that  country.  It  was  not  until  after 
the  Mormons  established  Salt  Lake  City,  and  their  destroying  angels,  known 
as  the  "Danites,"  became  prominent  for  their  mysterious  deeds  of  violence 
and  murder,  that  Bridger  was  compelled  to  leave  this  place.  They  had  a 
particular  dislike  of  him,  and  he.  would  certainly  have  felt  their  vengeance 
and  probably  lost  his  life  had  he  remained  much  longer. 

Bridger  was  much  sought  after  by  emigrants  crossing  the  plains,  for  his 
reputation  as  a  guide  and  Indian  fighter  was  well  known.  The  pilgrims 
annoyed  him  with  all  sorts  of  questions,  which  often  compelled  the  old  man 
to  beat  a  retreat,  yet  he  had  a  streak  of  humor,  and  gave  them  a  ghost  story 
every  now  and  then.  Some  of  these  stories  were  unique.  He  had  a  quick 
and  surprisingly  vivid  imagination,  and  reeled  off  story  after  story  with  a 
spontaneity  that  was  astonishing.  He  told  these  stories,  too,  with  a  solemn 
gravity  that  was  intensely  amusing.  I  know  that  I  am  largely  indebted  to 
him  for  often  keeping  up  my  spirits  when  they  were  at  a  low  ebb.  I  always 
knew  something  good  was  coming  when  he  began  to  tell  a  story,  but  never 
dared  to  smile  until  the  climax  was  reached,  for  that  would  have  spoiled  it 
all. 

"Is  there  anything  remarkable  to  be  seen  about  here?"  an  inquisitive  pil- 
grim asked  him  one  day. 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS.  465 

"W-a-1-1,"  he  replied,  in  a  peculiar  drawling  tone,  which  he  generally 
assumed  in  telling  stories,  in  order  to  gain  time  to  give  his  imagination 
fuller  play,  "There's  a  cur'ous  mountain  a  few  miles  off'n  the  road,  to  the 
north  of  here,  but  the  doggon'd  trouble  is  you  can't  see  the  blamed  thing." 

"A  mountain  and  can't  see  it — that's  curious,"  interrupted  the  pilgrim. 
"How  large  is  it?" 

"Wall,  I  should  say  it's  nigh  onto  three  miles  in  circumference  at  the 
base,  but  its  height  is  unknown,"  continued  Bridger  with  imperturbable 
gravity. 

"Is  it  so  high  you  can't  see  the  top  of  it?"  inquired  the  puzzled  traveler. 

"That's  what  I  say,  stranger;  you  can't  see  the  base  of  it  either.  Didn't 
you  ever  hear  of  the  Crystal  Mountain?" 

"I  never  did." 

"Wall,  I'll  tell  you  what  it  is.  It's  a  mountain  of  crystal  rock,  an'  so 
clear  that  the  most  powerful  field  glasses  can't  see  it,  much  less  the  naked 
eye.  You'll  wonder,  p'r'aps,  how  a  thing  that  can't  be  seen  no  how  wus 
ever  discovered.  It  came  about  in  this  way.  You  see,  a  lot  of  bones  an 
the  carcasses  of  animals  an'  birds  wus  found  scattered  all  around  the  base. 
You  see  they  ran  or  flow  against  this  invisible  rock  and  jest  killed  themselves 
dead.  You  kin  feel  the  rock  an' that's  all.  You  can  t  see  it.  It's  a  good 
many  miles  high,  for  everlastin'  quantities  of  birds'  bones  are  jest  piled  up 
all  around  the  base  of  it." 

On  another  occasion  he  told  one  of  these  persistent  questioners  the  story  of 
a  gold  mine,  which  he  said  was  not  far  from  the  Overland  road. 

"Why,  the  gold's  so  plentiful,"  said  Bridger,  "that  all  that's  necessary  to 
secure  it  is  to  jest  pick  it  up.  Great  nuggets  of  the  purest  gold  are  scattered 
all  over  the  ground.  There's  no  diggin'  to  be  done,  or  rock-crushin' 
machines  an'  siftin'  required.  You  orter  to  stop  over  and  fill  your  pockets; 
you'll  find  it  mighty  useful  on  your  journey.  Anybod}'  who's  in  want  of 
gold  need  only  go  there  an'  load  himself." 

"Do  you  mean  to  say  that  it  is  free  to  anybody?"  asked  the  traveler. 

"Free  as  the  air  we  breathe,"  said  Bridger. 

"How  can  we  get  there?"  one  of  the  listening  crowd  ventured  to  inquire. 

"Hire  a  buggy — easiest  thing  in  the  world,"  answered  Bridger. 

The  joke  was  that  a  buggy  could  not  be  had  nearer  than  six  hundred 
miles. 

Another  story  of  this  strange  and  eccentric  character : 

"You  must  have  had  some  curious  adventures  with,  and  hairbreadth 
escapes  from  the  Indians,  during  your  long  life  among  them,"  observed  one 
of  a  party  of  a  dozen  or  more,  who  had  been  relentlessly  plying  him  with 
questions. 


466  TWENTY   YEARS  AMONG  OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 

"Yes,  I've  bed  a  few,"  he  responded  reflectively,  "and  I  never  to  my 
dyin'  day  shall  forget  one  in  perticlar." 

The  crowd  manifested  an  eager  desire  to  hear  the  story.  I  will  not  under 
take  to  give  his  words,  but  no  story  was  ever  more  graphically  told,  and  no 
throng  of  listeners  ever  followed  a  story's  detail  with  more  intense  interest. 
He  was  on  horseback  and  alone.  He  had  been  suddenly  surprised  by  a  party 
of  six  Indians,  and  putting  spurs  to  his  horse  sought  to  escape.  The  Indians, 
mounted  on  fleet  ponies,  quickly  followed  in  pursuit.  His  only  weapon  was 
a  six-shooter.  The  moment  the  leading  Indian  came  within  shooting  dis- 
tance, he  turned  in  his  saddle  and  gave  him  a  shot.  His  shot  always  meant 
a  dead  Indian.  In  this  way  he  picked  off  five  of  the  Indians,  but  the  last 
one  kept  up  the  pursuit  relentlessly  and  refused  to  be  shaken  off. 

"We  wus  nearin'  the  edge  of  a  deep  and  wide  gorge,"  said  Bridger.  "No 
horse  could  leap  over  that  awful  chasm  an'  a  fall  to  the  bottom  meant  sartin 
death.  I  turned  my  horse  suddint  an' the  Injun  was  upon  me.  We  both 
fired  to  once,  an'  both  horses  wus  killed.  We  now  engaged  in  a  han'-to- 
han'  conflict  witn  butcher  knives.  He  wus  a  powerful  Injun — tallest  I  ever 
see.  It  wus  a  long  and  fierce  struggle.  One  moment  I  bed  the  best  of  it, 
an'  the  next  the  odds  wus  agin  me.  Finally " 

Here  Bridger  paused  as  if  to  get  breath. 

"How  did  it  end?"  at  length  asked  one  of  his  breathless  listeners, 
anxiously. 

"  The  Injun  killed  me"  he  replied  with  slow  deliberation.  The  climax 
freed  him  from  further  questioning  by  that  party. 

While  on  a  visit  to  St.  Louis,  one  of  his  old  mountaineer  friends  of  the 
America"  Fur  Company  met  him  on  the  street,  and  greeting  him,  said : 
"Jim,  wi^.t  are  you  doing  here?"  With  an  oath  he  answered,  "I'm  trying 

to  find  my  way  out  of  these canons;"  adding,  "This   is  the  meanest 

camp  I  ever  struck  in  my  life.  I  have  met  more'n  a  thousand  men  in  the 
last  hour,  and  nary  one  of  'em  has  asked  me  to  come  to  his  lodge  and  have 
something  to  eat." 

When  on  a  visit  to  Washington,  he  was  introduced  to  the  President. 
After  staring  at  him  in  amazement  for  a  few  moments,  Bridger  turned  to  tbe 
member  of  Congress  who  had  introduced  him,  and  said,  "Looks  jest  like 
any  other  man,  don't  he?"  He  had  expected  to  see  in  the  President  a  super- 
human person,  and  was  much  astonished  to  find  that  he  looked  very  much 
like  other  people. 

While  his  trading  post  flourished  at  Fort  Bridger  he  was  supposed  to  have 
a  large  amount  of  money  in  his  possession.  Some  desperadoes  entered  his 
house  one  night  for  the  purpose  of  robbing  him.  Bridger,  awakening  from 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS.  467 

his  sleep,  quickly  said,  "What  are  you  lookin' for?"  One  of  the  despera- 
does answered,  "We  are  looking  for  your  money."  Bridger  replied, 
"Wait  jest  a  minute  an'  I'll  git  up  and  help  you."  This  disconcerted  the 
robbers,  and  knowing  their  man  concluded  not  to  wait  until  he  "got  up,'* 
but  "got"  themselves. 

The  wagon  trains  crossing  the  plains  at  that  time  were  very  numerous, 
and  usually  before  leaving  the  starting  points  along  the  Missouri  River, 
the  emigrants  bought  little  guide  books  for  ten  cents,  giving  the  location  of 
good  water  and  grass  along  the  road.  Hence  it  frequently  happened  that 
camp  was  made  at  night  where  not  a  spear  of  grass  was  to  be  found  for  the 
horses  and  cattle,  it  having  been  consumed  by  the  thousands  that  had 
camped  there  before.  Then  the  travelers  called  on  Bridger  and  asked  him 
where  the  next  good  camping  place  was.  The  information  was  cheerfully 
given,  and  the  travelers  immediately  turned  to  their  guide  books,  and  not 
finding  mention  of  the  locality  would  accuse  Bridger  of  deceiving  them, 
which  was  very  annoying,  and  did  not  increase  his  regard  for  the  pilgrims. 
Sometimes  he  would  sit  for  hours  and  act  as  if  deaf  and  dumb,  in  order  to 
put  a  stop  to  the  silly  questions  of  travelers. 

I  occupied  the  same  quarters  with  him  one  whole  winter,  where  I  had 
ample  opportunity  to  study  his  character  and  learn  his  peculiar  ways  and 
manner  of  living.  He  never  did  anything  until  he  felt  so  inclined.  For 
instance,  if  he  grew  sleepy  in  the  afternoon,  say  by  three,  four,  or  five 
o'clock,  he  went  to  bed,  and  when  he  awoke,  say  in  four,  five  or  six  hours 
afterward,  he  would  rise,  make  a  fire,  roast  meat,  eat  it,  and  sing  "Injun," 
to  use  his  own  terra,  the  rest  of  the  night.  If  he  had  a  tin  pan,  he  turned  it 
bottom  side  up,  and  with  a  stick,  beat  on  the  bottom,  making  a  noise  like 
the  Indian  tom-tom.  He  never  ate  until  he  was  hungry,  and,  as  he  lived 
largely  on  meats,  he  was  thin  and  spare,  although  strong  and  wiry.  His 
imnner  of  living  during  this  winter  did  not  coincide  with  my  habits  or 
ideas,  by  any  means,  so  I  tried  to  entertain  him  every  afternoon  and  keep 
him  awake  until  nine  or  ten  o'clock  in  the  evening.  My  first  effort  was  in 
reading  to  him.  A  copy  of  "Hiawatha,"  was  found  among  the  troops, 
which  I  read  to  him  as  long  as  he  permitted  it.  He  would  sit  bent  over,  his 
long  legs  crossed,  his  gaunt  hands  and  arms  clasping  his  knees,  and  listen  to 
the  reading  attentively,  until  a  passage  was  reached  in  which  Longfellow 
portrayed  an  imaginary  Indian,  when  Bridger,  after  a  period  of  uneasy 
wriggling  on  his  seat,  arose  very  wrathy,  and  swearing  that  the  whole  story 
was  a  lie,  that  be  would  listen  to  no  more  of  it,  and  that  "no  such  Injun 
ever  lived."  This  happened  over  and  over  again.  After  a  while  I  quieted 
him,  and  began  reading  again,  but  after  a  short  time  he  was  sure  to  stop 


468  TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 

me,  swearing  that  he  would  not  listen  any  longer  to  such  infernal  lies. 
However,  I  managed  to  entertain  him  in  this  way  for  two  or  three  weeks, 
during  which  time  I  secured  a  reasonable  amount  of  sleep  out  of  each 
twenty- four  hours. 

Bridger  became  very  much  interested  in  this  reading,  and  asked  which 
was  the  best  book  that  had  ever  been  written.  I  told  him  that  Shakespeare's 
was  supposed  to  be  the  greatest  book.  Thereupon  he  made  a  journey  to  the 
main  road,  and  lay  in  wait  for  a  wagon  train,  and  bought  a  copy  from  some 
emigrants,  paying  for  it  with  a  yoke  of  cattle,  which  at  that  time  could  have 
been  sold  for  one  hundred  and  twenty-five  dollars.  He  hired  a  German  boy, 
from  one  of  the  wagon  trains,  at  forty  dollars  a  month,  to  read  to  him. 
The  boy  was  a  good  reader,  and  Bridger  took  great  interest  in  the  reading, 
listening  most  attentively  for  hours  at  a  time.  Occasionally  he  got  the 
thread  of  the  story  so  mixed  that  he  would  swear  a  blue  streak,  then  compel 
the  young  man  to  stop,  turn  back,  and  re-read  a  page  or  two.  until  he  could 
get  the  story  straightened  out.  This  continued  until  he  became  so  hope- 
lessly involved  in  reading  "Richard  the  Third"  that  he  declared  he 
"wouldn't  listen  any  more  to  the  talk  of  any  man  who  wus  mean  enough 
to  kill  his  mother."  That  ended  our  reading  of  Shakespeare,  much  to  my 
disgust,  for  I  was  again  doomed  to  be  kept  awake  at  all  hours  of  the  night 
by  his  aboriginal  habits.  After  that  it  was  amusing  to  hear  Bridger  quote 
Shakespeare.  He  could  give  quotation  after  quotation,  and  was  always 
ready  to  do  so.  Sometimes  he  seasoned  them  with  a  broad  oath,  so  ingeni- 
ously inserted  as  to  make  it  appear  to  the  listener  that  Shakespeare  himself 
had  used  the  same  language. 

During  that  winter  Bridger's  suit  of  buckskin  clothing  (and  it  was  all  he 
had)  became  infested  with  vermin,  and  in  despair  he  at  last  asked  me  how 
he  could  get  rid  of  them.  I  told  him  that  if  he  would  take  off  his  buckskin 
jacket  and  breeches  and  wrap  himself  in  a  buffalo  robe,  I  would  under- 
take to  rid  his  clothing  of  the  pests.  He  thereupon  took  his  clothing  off, 
and  turned  it  inside  out.  After  spreading  the  garments  on  the  ground,  I 
poured  a  ridge  of  powder  down  all  the  seams  of  the  suit,  and  touching  it  off 
burned  the  vermin,  but  the  process  also  burned  the  buckskin  clothing  badly. 
On  the  seams  of  the  leggings  I  had  sprinkled  so  much  powder  that  it  burnt 
the  garments  to  charred  leather.  They  were  drawn  up  short  at  the  seams, 
and  after  being  turned,  each  leg  curled  up  until  it  looked  like  a  half-moon. 
Bridger  looked  at  me  for  an  instant  in  great  disgust,  and  with  a  big  oath 
said,  "I'm  goin' to  kill  you  for  that."  I  was  afraid  he  would  make  his 
threat  good,  for  he  was  certainly  very  indignant.  I  laughed  at  him,  and 
taking  hold  of  the  leggings  stretched  them  into  the  best  shape  possible,  but 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS.  4-69 

the  leather  was  burned  to  brittleness,  and  the  breeches  broke  at  the 
slightest  touch.  Bridger  did  not  forgive  me  for  this  for  two  or  three  days, 
during  which  time  he  was  compelled  to  go  about  in  a  buffalo  robe  until 
another  buckskin  suit  could  be  procured.  Every  time  he  saw  his  ruined  suit 
he  blessed  me,  saying,  "The  next  time  you  want  to  rid  me  an'  my  clo's  of 
varmints  don't  you  do  it  with  a  doggon'd  train  of  gunpowder." 

An  instance  of  Bridger's  courage  happened  under  my  own  observation. 
While  scouting  in  the  South  Park  he  was  our  guide;  we  also  had 
with  us  some  Arapahoe  Indians,  and  a  white  man  who  had  an  Arapahoe 
woman  for  his  wife. 

After  a  sharp  engagement  with  a  war  party  of  Indians,  who  greatly  out- 
numbered us,  we  were  compelled  to  withdraw  to  the  hillside.  As  soon  as 
the  Indians  saw  our  position  a  number  of  warriors  dismounted  and  hid 
themselves  in  the  bushes  and  tall  grasses;  from  this  concealment  they  began 
firing  upon  us.  I  did  not  consider  it  advisable,  for  the  time  being,  to  sepa- 
rate the  command  and  send  a  party  to  charge  into  the  ambush.  Bridger  all 
this  time  was  growing  restless,  and  at  last  challenged  an  Arapahoe  to  go 
into  the  copse  with  him  and  attack  the  Indians  hand  to  hand.  The  Indian 
refused  and  Bridger  abused  him  soundly  by  means  of  the  sign  language. 
The  Indian  at  last  grasped  Bridger  by  the  hand,  and  the  two  started.  It 
was  not  long  before  I  heard  the  report  of  a  six-shooter,  and  in  a  few  minutes 
Bridger  returned  holding  in  his  hand  the  scalp  of  a  warrior  covered  with 
warm  blood ;  he  found  an  Indian  in  the  brush  and  before  the  latter  had  time 
to  move  had  killed  him.  The  Arapahoe  not  returning,  I  was  satisfied  that 
his  earthly  career  was  ended,  or  that  a  worse  fate  was  in  store  for  him.  I 
determined  to  burn  the  tall,  dry  grass,  and  ordered  the  white  man  with  the 
Indian  wife  to  send  one  of  the  Arapahoe  Indians  to  set  it  on  fire;  they  all 
refused,  until  Bridger  ridiculed  them  so  unmercifully  that  the  whole  party 
accompanied  him,  and  the  grass  was  fired.  Jt  burned  rapidly,  and  it  was 
not  long  before  the  fierce  flames  disclosed  a  great  many  Indians  hidden  in 
the  underbrush.  When  the  command  opened  fire  upon  them,  they  ran  in 
every  direction ;  but  soon  returned  with  their  mounted  warriors  ready  to 
resume  the  fight.  Bridger  insisted  that  under  no  circumstances  must  we 
leave  cur  present  position,  as  there  were  at  least  two  or  three  Indians  to  one 
of  us.  In  a  short  time  they  made  an  attack,  but  we  had  the  advantage  of 
high  ground  and  could  anticipate  every  movement  they  made.  Bridger 
picked  off  the  first  Indian  who  got  within  range  of  his  deadly  rifle,  and  the 
best  shots  among  the  troopers  also  used  their  Spencer  carbines  with  effect. 
The  Indians  were  thus  prevented  from  getting  near  us,  and  after  a  few  hours 
of  this  kind  of  fighting  they  withdrew. 


470  TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG  OUR   HOSTILE    INDIANS. 

Bridger  was  chief  guide  and  scout  on  our  Powder  River  expedition. 
When  we  arrived  in  the  vicinity  of  .Rosebud  River,  Bridger  informed  the 
officers  that  we  were  near  a  large  body  of  Indians,  and  that  they  had  large 
numbers  of  newly  stolen  animals,  giving  their  numbers.  This  he  did  from 
the  marks  of  the  animals'  shoes,  as  the  horses  and  mules  of  the  Indians 
are  never  shod.  When  we  entered  this  battle  everything  he  said  was  found 
to  be  correct. 

An  instance  of  Bridger's  wit  occurred  on  the  expedition.  While  en- 
camped under  the  Big  Horn  Mountains  one  night,  when  all  was  quiet,  an 
officer  asked  him  why  this  chain  was  called  "Big  Horn  Mountains." 
Bridger  turned  his  face  to  the  mountains  and  saw  the  new  moon  standing 
on  end,  and  half  hidden  by  the  summit  of  the  mountain.  Bridger  said,  with 
his  usual  gravity,  "Look,  don't  you  see  the  horn  on  the  mountains,  that's 
why." 

During  the  winter  we  roomed  together  Bridger  told  me  many  interesting 
stories  of  early  life,  one  of  which  was  that  of  killing  a  mule.  It  is  well 
known  that  during  the  night  when  everything  is  still,  animals  will  approach 
a  fire,  their  eyes  shining  like  fireballs;  the  hunters  then  aimed  directly 
between  the  eyes  and  fired,  which  was  sure  to  kill.  This  mode  of  killing 
animals  was  common  among  all  hunters  of  the  plains  and  mountains,  and 
was  known  as  "flashing."  When  a  young  man  Bridger  was  trapping  with 
a  party  on  Green  River;  during  the  night  he  heard  a  noise,  and  looking  in 
the  direction  whence  it  came,  saw  a  pair  of  eyes  flash,  and  taking  deadly  aim 
with  his  rifle,  fired.  Going  to  the  spot  where  he  expected  to  find  a  deer,  or 
elk,  that  he  had  killed,  to  his  horror  he  found  that  he  had  shot  a  fine  mule 
between  the  eyes,  killing  it  instantly.  For  this  mule  Bridger  was  compelled 
to  work  two  years  without  one  cent  of  pay. 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS.  471 


CHAPTER    LVI. 

A  FAMOUS  FRONTIERSMAN,   TRAPPER,   SCOUT  AND  GUIDE— A  WHITE  MAN 

WHO  HAD  A  SNAKE  WOMAN  AND  LIVED  THE  INDIAN  LIFE 

MANY  YEARS— HIS  ADVENTURES  AND  EXPLOITS. 

Jim  Baker  a  Noted  Character — Wanders  into  the  Snake  Tribe — Lives  With  a  Snake 
Woman  and  Adopts  the  Clothing  and  the  Life  of  the  Snakes — A  Desperate  Fight 
with  Indians — Fleeced  by  Gamblers — His  Fortitude — Adventures  with  a  Party  of 
Miners — Discovers  Gold — Attacked  by  Indians — Fighting  Indians  Step  by  Step  for 
a  Hundred  Miles — The  Killed  and  Wounded — His  Deadly  Rifle — Hatred  of  the  Mor- 
mons— A  Perilous  Journey — Concealed  by  Day  and  Traveling  by  Night. 

TRUE  mountaineers  and  frontiersmen,  possessed  the  important  qualities  of 
courage,  coolness,  perseverance  and  physical  endurance.  Of  the  few  white 
men  who  visited  this  almost  unknown  territory  at  that  time,  few  remained 
longer  than  the  time  it  took  them  to  get  away ;  those  who  remained  per- 
manently did  so  for  various  reasons.  Some  of  them  built  ranches,  around 
which  they  erected  stockades  for  protection  as  well  as  for  corraling  their 
animals  in  case  of  attack.  At  these  ranches  they  established  trading  posts 
for  the  purpose  of  trading  with  Indians.  Nearly  all  of  these  "ranchmen"  had 
one  or  more  Indian  women  for  their  wives. 

It  was  not  uncommon  for  frontiersmen  who  had  Indian  women  for  their 
wives  by  whom  they  had  children,  to  remain  among  the  tribes  to  which  their 
wives  belonged.  Of  this  class  was  Jim  Baker,  who  became  noted  through- 
out the  entire  northwest.  He  was  originally  employed  by  the  American 
Fur  Company,  and  in  his  early  days  was  sent  by  them  to  the  headwaters  of 
the  Missouri  River.  Subsequently  he  wandered  into  the  Snake  tribe  of 
Indians,  and  secured  according  to  Indian  custom,  a  Snake  women  for  his 
wife,  by  whom  he  had  several  children. 

Baker  possessed  all  the  qualities,  both  mental  and  physical,  of  the  typical 
frontiersman.  In  a  short  time  after  he  had  married  into  this  tribe,  he  adopted 
the  clothing  and  life  of  the  red  man,  and  soon  became  an  adept  in  the 
ways  of  the  savages.  His  mental  faculties  seemed  exactly  suited  to  this 
kind  of  life.  He  could  follow  the  trail  of  almost  any  animal  that  had 
walked  over  the  ground  at  the  top  speed  of  a  fleet  horse.  His  marksmanship 
with  rifle  or  pistol  was  unerring,  and  as  he  depended  upon  these  weapons  for 
subsistence,  was  in  constant  practice. 


472  TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 

In  throwing  the  lariat  he  was  very  skilful.  As  there  were  large  numbers 
of  wild  horses  in  his  immediate  vicinity,  he  rode  into  the  herds,  lassoing  as 
many  as  he  needed,  always  selecting  the  best.  In  this  way  he  kept  a  large 
supply  of  horses  on  hand  at  all  times. 

From  his  early  experience  with  the  fur  companies  in  trapping  in  thenumer" 
ous  streams  in  that  region  from  the  mouth  to  their  source,  Baker  became  famil- 
iar with  the  watercourses,  the  canons  of  the  mountains,  and  the  geography 
of  the  country ;  hence  he  was  much  sought  after  as  a  guide  through  this 
pathless  region. 

Baker,  with  some  Ute  Indians,  piloted  an  expedition  from  Salt  Lake  to 
the  headwaters  of  the  Arkansas  River,  during  1856  or  1857.  On  this  cam- 
paign the  commanding  officer  compelled  Baker  to  dress  himself  in  the  cloth- 
ing of  the  white  man.  Baker  said  with  an  oath  that  it  was  "the  first  time 
in  many  winters  that  he  had  worn  such  an  outfit,"  and  when  he  was  through 
he  declared  that  it  would  be  "the  last  time  that  store  clothes  would  decorate 
his  body." 

Baker  often  buried  himself  in  the  wilderness  for  one  and  two  years  at  a 
time,  and  after  securing  a  large  number  of  pelts,  he  returned  to  civilization 
and  converted  his  accumulations  into  cash,  when  he  invariably  went  on  a 
wild  spree.  On  one  of  these  occasions  he  visited  a  gambling  house,  having 
with  him  his  accumulations  of  three  or  four  j'ears.  He  played  against  the 
game  until  his  last  dollar  was  gone,  and  then  discovered  that  he  had  been 
robbed  by  the  gamblers.  After  looking  the  sporting  gentlemen  over,  and 
studying  their  faces  for  an  instant,  as  if  determining  what  to  do,  he  realized 
the  desperate  characters  of  the  men,  and  the  folly  of  attempting  to  recover 
any  of  his  money.  He  said,  as  he  turned  to  leave,  "  Well,  easy  come,  easy 
go!"  This  so  pleased  the  gamblers  that  they  made  inquiry  as  to  who  he  was; 
after  learning  that  it  was  Jim  Baker,  they  gave  him  sufficient  money  to  pay 
his  way  back  to  his  own  country,  where  he  could  suffer  and  toil  for  many 
moons  to  again  accumulate  sufficient  for  another  debauch. 

Once  when  crossing  a  swollen  stream  on  a  flat  boat,  he  got  into  an  alterca- 
tion with  one  of  the  boatmen,  who,  after  a  few  words,  struck  Baker  a  severe 
blow  on  the  head  with  a  stanchion,  knocking  him  into  the  stream.  After 
being  fished  out,  he  braced  himself  up,  looked  at  his  assailant,  and  remarked 
coolly  to  his  friends:  "That  fellow  came  mighty  near  getting  the  best  of  me, 
didn't  he?" 

When  the  gold  fever  broke  out  prospectors  and  miners  swarmed  to  that 
country  in  search  of  the  precious  metal.  One  of  these  parties  met  Baker, 
and  knowing  his  qualifications  as  a  trailer  and  mountaineer,  induced  him  to 
join  them.  Baker  led  the  party  up  a  valley,  prospecting  all  the  way,  but 
found  no  evidences  of  gold  or  silver. 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS.  473 

They  crossed  the  summit  of  the  mountains,  prospected  down  the  valley 
on  the  other  side.  Coming  to  a  plateau,  where  camp  was  made,  Baker,  as 
was  his  custom,  immediately  started  to  reconnoiter.  He  soon  came  to  a 
place  covered  with  bright,  shining  yellow  metal.  He  at  once  filled  his 
pockets  and  rushing  back  to  camp,  excitedly  yelled:  "Here  we  are,  boys! 
I've  found  a  place  where  there  is  gold  enough  to  make  clinkers  to  supply  the 
world."  After  showing  the  contents  of  his  pockets,  one  of  the  party,  who 
was  an  expert  miner,  quietly  said :  "Baker,  yon  old  fool,  this  is  only  pyrites 
of  iron."  Baker  paused  for  a  moment  and  said :  "  What  a  great  thing  we 
have  lost  then !"  and  at  once  began  to  make  "medicine."  One  of  the  party 
who  was  looking  at  him  in  his  ridiculous  posture,  asked  him  what  he  was 
doing.  He  replied  that  if  he  only  had  his  old  woman  with  him  to  help  him 
to  make  the  right  medicine,  he  "could  turn  the  pirates  of  iron  into  pure 
gold." 

His  companion  said:  "Well,  further  down  this  valley,  we  may  strike  a 
rich  find  yet. "  Baker,  well  knowing  the  character  of  the  country  signifi- 
cantly replied :  "If  you  do,  you  may  run  against  some  more  pirates,  but  they 
won't  be  like  these,  they  will  be  the  Palous,  the  Coeur  d'  Alenes,  the  Spok- 
anes,  the  Pah-Utes,  or  worse,  them  pirates  of  Mormons." 

Curiously  enough,  it  turned  out  as  Baker  predicted.  The  party  was 
shortly  afterward  attacked  by  Indians,  and  some  of  the  miners  killed. 

Baker,  well  understanding  the  methods  and  wiles  of  the  savages,  retreated 
with  his  party  to  a  supposed  place  of  safety,  but  the  savages  followed  up  their 
trail,  and  came  upon  them  suddenly.  Baker  rushed  from  his  hiding-place 
and  despatched  two  of  the  most  advanced  with  his  six-shooter.  This  so 
demoralized  the  rest  of  the  Indians  that  they  fled  in  confusion.  Baker  and 
his  party  reported  to  the  authorities  the  killing  of  their  comrades,  and  Colonel 
Steptoe,  with  his  comanmd,  was  sent  to  avenge  the  murder  of  these  men. 

This  unfortunate  affair  was  one  of  the  causes  that  precipitated  the  war 
between  the  troops  and  the  allied  forces  of  the  Palooses,  Cceur  d'  Alenes, 
Spokanes,  and  probably  other  Indian  tribes. 

The  troops  being  greatly  outnumbered,  were  defeated  in  the  onslaught, 
and  compelled  to  retreat.  During  the  retreat,  they  were  harassed  at  every 
step,  and  compelled  to  fight  the  savages  every  inch  of  the  way.  During  the 
day  they  fought  from  hastily  thrown-up  breastworks,  and  such  natural 
shelter  as  they  could  secure.  When  darkness  fell,  they  retreated  as  far  as 
possible.  Here  they  made  a  stand,  throwing  up  earthworks,  and  when 
darkness  again  came  on,  resumed  their  retreat  until  they  finally  reached 
the  Snake  Eiver,  over  one  hundred  miles  distant  from  the  scene  of  the 
attack.  Here,  with  the  aid  of  some  Nez  Perces  they  crossed.  From  the 


474  TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 

suddenness  of  the  attack,  the  premeditated  treachery,  and  the  over-confidence 
of  the  savages,  it  was  obvious  to  Colonel  Steptoe  and  his  officers  that  their 
assailants  were  instigated  and  supported  by  the  Mormons,  a  suspicion  sub- 
sequently found  to  be  true. 

During  this  retreat  of  nearly  one  hundred  and  ten  miles  the  troops  lost 
several  officers  and  many  men,  some  of  whom  were  killed  outright,  among 
the  latter  being  the  brave  Captain  Taylor. 

It  might  naturally  be  supposed  that  the  loss  of  these  officers  and  men  had 
a  depressing  effect  on  the  survivors;  on  the  contrary,  it  stimulated  them  to 
greater  effort.  As  their  numbers  grew  smaller,  and  their  ammunition  gre\* 
less,  they  stood  closer  together,  fighting  with  increased  energy.  The 
soldiers  were  also  hampered  in  carrying  their  wounded. 

In  one  of  these  desperate  stands,  Baker  seeing  a  number  of  the  enemy  ap- 
proaching, called  to  an  officer  near  him,  who,  I  think  was  Lieutenant  Gas- 
ton,  to  allow  him  to  advance  from  his  position  with  fifteen  soldiers  to  attack 
this  detached  body.  Baker  sallied  forth,  leading  the  attack.  They  were 
met  by  one  of  the  chiefs  at  the  head  of  a  large  number  of  the  enemy.  This 
chief  was  a  skilful  warrior  and  leader,  whose  Indian  name  was  Pow-ti-mine, 
but  was  called  by  the  Mormons  "Vincent."  A  desperate  conflict  ensued. 
Baker  seeing  that  they  were  greatly  outnumbered,  advanced  only  a  short 
distance,  and  called  upon  the  troops  to  kneel,  take  good  aim  and  make  every 
shot  tell.  The  troops'  fire  was  so  hot,  that  it  held  the  Indians  in  check  for 
a  time. 

Soon  Lieutenant  Gaston  fell  mortally  wounded,  and  was  left  on  the  field, 
the  troops  being  unable  to  carry  bim  away.  Baker  seeing  that  further  re- 
sistance was  useless,  directed  the  troops  to  retire  as  best  they  could  to  the 
main  body  of  the  command.  On  reaching  it,  they  discovered  that  but  seven 
of  the  fifteen  were  left.  During  the  retreat  Baker  was  the  last  man  to  leave 
every  point  of  vantage,  and  he  used  his  muzzle-loading  Hawkins  rifle  with 
deadly  effect.  After  joining  the  main  body  of  the  troops,  and  observing  the 
few  that  were  left,  he  said  with  his  usual  oath,  "that  pace  was  hotter  than 
my  old  woman's  frying-pan.  1  don't  want  to  get  into  any  place  like  that 
any  more." 

In  this  battle  the  Co3ur  d*  Alenes  were  led  by  Mil-kap-si,  one  of  their 
chiefs,  whom  Baker  knew  well,  and  had  met  on  former  occasions.  It  was 
this  chief,  who  on  meeting  Baker  afterward,  told  him  who  the  allied  party 
consisted  of,  and  gave  their  numbers,  from  which  it  was  learned  that  the 
Mormons  were  the  real  instigators  of  the  war. 

After  this  affair  Baker  returned  alone  through  the  mountains  to  the  Snake 
country,  a  distance  of  over  two  hundred  miles.  On  this  journey  he  was 


TWENTY   YEARS   AMONG   OUR   HOSTILE   INDIANS. 


475 


compelled  to  pass  through  the  country  of  the  hostiles,  and  was  constantly  in 
danger  of  falling  in  with  bands  of  roving  Indians.  Baker  always  claimed 
that  this  was  the  most  perilous  journey  of  his  life.  Were  it  not  for  his  knowl- 
edge as  a  frontiersman,  he  could  not  have  accomplished  it.  He  lived  on 
game,  and  frequently,  when  in  the  neighborhood  of  hostile  Indians,  was  re- 
duced to  the  verge  of  starvation,  not  daring  to  fire  his  rifle,  lest  its  sound 
should  betray  his  presence.  At  other  times  he  was  forced  to  remain  in  con- 
cealment all  day,  and  to  travel  only  by  night.  He  finally  reached  the  Snake 
country.  This  is  his  own  story  in  brief  as  he  gave  it  to  me. 


' 


BARK  HOUSE— SAC  AND  FOX. 


INDEX. 


Algonquin.  The,  311. 

American   Fur   Co.,  The,   390. 

American  Trooper,  The,  406. 

Amusements,  Indian,  The.  !)8. 

Animals  of  the  Plains  and  Mountains,  448. 

Arapahoes,  The,  247,  251. 

Ar-a-poo-ash,  228,  357. 

Areckarees,   The,   268. 

Arkansas  Tribe,    171. 

Arrows,  Indian,  120. 

Apaches,   187. 

Apaches,  Characteristics,  Customs,  etc.,  of, 

188. 

Ash  Hollow,  Battle  of,  161. 
Assiniboins,  Tribe,  157. 
Appalachees,  The,  312. 
Astor,  John  Jacob,  390,  392. 
Athabaska  Nation,  313. 
Aubry,  F.  X.,  425. 
Aztecs,  The,  347. 

Bad  Face,  Tribe  of,   164. 
Baker  Jim,  201,  394,  462. 
Bannocks,    The,    211. 
Battles,  Indian,  5U. 
Beckworth.  James,  229. 
Bears,  457. 

Bible,  Indian  search  for,  308. 
Big  Tree,  236,  239. 
Black  Eagle,  239. 
Blackfeet,  The.  21,.  337. 
Blackfeet  Snowshoes,  116. 
Black  Kettle,  245. 
Bloods,  The,  222. 
Bonneville,  Capt.,  400. 
Bridger,  James,  201,  394-462. 
Brown,  John,  353. 
Brule  Sioux,  The,   160. 
Buffaloes,  The,  433. 
iiull  Boat,  The,   115-210. 
Burial  Ceremonies.  128. 

Caddoes,  The,  282. 


Cahokias,  The,  279. 

California  Indians,  The,  291,  320. 

Camas,  The,  233-318. 

Carson,  Kit,  464. 

Captives,  Treatment  of,  72. 

Cayuses,   The,   290-307. 

Cheyennes,  The,  240. 

Children,  Treatment  of,  91. 

Chinooks,  The,  233,  318. 

Chippewas,  The.  275. 

Chivington  Massacre,  245. 

Cochise,   195. 

Connor,   Genl.,   354. 

Coeur  d'Alenes,  The,  307. 

Columbian  Indians,  The,  302. 

Collins,  Lieut.  C.  W.,  352. 

Comanches,  The,  174. 

Cooking,  Indian  means  of,  79. 

Cortina,  Juan  N.  P.,  178. 

Crees,  The,  279. 

Crows,  The,  224. 

Crazy   Horse,   Chief,   365. 

Custer,  Genl.  Geo.  A.,  365. 

Dacotah,  The,  313. 
De  Smet,  Father,  308. 
Digger  Indians,  The,  213. 
Dog  Feasts,   125. 
Dog  Soldiers,  151. 
Dress  Indian,  82. 

Execution  of  Indian  Chiefs,  134. 
Expeditions,  398. 
Fetterman  Massacre,  358. 
Fire  Dance,  The,  339. 
Flatheads,  The,  231. 
Fort  Laramie.  Treaty  at,   163. 
Fur  Companies,  The,  226,  388. 
Fremont,  Genl.  John  C.,  49. 

Gall,  Sioux  Chief,  166,  366. 
Geronimo,  Apache,  195. 
Goose  Creek,  Battle  of,  354. 


478 

Grattan  Massacre,  162,  351. 

Great  Indian  Nations,  311. 

Gros  Ventres  of  the  Prairie,  The,  218,  221. 

Guadalajara  Ware,  256. 

Guerreu,  Charles  ti.,  324. 

Harney,  Genl.  W.  S.,   161. 
Hudson  Bay  Fur  Co.,  388. 
Hidatsa,  The,  230. 
Holliday,  Ben,  416. 

Illinois,  The,  279. 

Indian,  Origin  of,  341. 

Indian,  Duels  with  Knives,   119. 

Indian  Country,  45. 

Indian,  Number  of,  45. 

Infidelity,  Punishment  for,  93. 

lones,  The,  281. 

lowas.  The,  .171. 

Iroquois  Shells,  107. 

Julesburg,  419. 

Kansas  Indians,  The,  167. 
Kaskasias  Indians,  The,  279. 
Kaws,  The,    167. 
Kiowas,  The,  235. 
Klamaths,  The,  307,  360. 
Klikatahs,  The,  290. 
Kootenai,  The,  231,  304. 
Keeches,  The,  312. 

Lacotah,  The,  313. 

Languages,  Indian,  58-108. 

Lewis   and   Clark,   Lieuts.,   Expeditions   of, 

398. 

Little  Crow,  Chief,  382. 
Little  Thunder,  Chief,  162. 
Lodges,   Indian,  75. 
Long,  S.  H.,  Lieut.,  400. 

Mackey,  Major  T.   L.,   324. 
.Mackinaw  Fur  Co.,  390. 
Mandans,   The,    153. 
Marriage  Customs,  90. 
Mangus,  Colorado,  195. 
Maricopas,  The,  198. 
Massacres,  Indian,  54. 
Massacre,  Brown,  John,  Lieut.,  353. 
Massacre,  Canby,  Genl.  E.  R.  S.,  359. 
Massacre,  Collins,  Lieut.  C.  W.,  352. 
Massacre,  Chivington,  245. 
Massacre,  Emigrants,  420. 
Massacre,    Lieuts.    Fetterman    and    Brown, 
353. 


INDEX. 


Massacre,  Grattan,  Lieut.,  351. 
Massacre,  Sage  Run,  353. 
Massacre,  Major  Vanderburgh,  394. 
Massacre,  Jsioux,  New  Ulm,  380. 
Massacre,  Wright,  Ben,  361. 
Maynadier,  W.  E.,  Col.,   64,   125. 
Medicine    Bags,    273,    338. 
Medicine  Dance,  337. 
Mental  Faculties,  55,  68,  78. 
Miamis,  The,  280. 
Michigames,  The,  279. 
Minitari,  The,  230. 
Minneconjoux,  The,   165. 
Mirage,  419. 
Mobiles,  The,  312. 
Modocs,  The,  359. 
Mohaves,  The,  197. 
Mormons,  The,  474. 
Mourning  Customs,  94. 
Music,  Indian,  100. 

Navajoes,  The,  255. 

Nez  Perces,  The,  283,  307. 

North  West  Fur  Co.,  The,  389. 

Ogalallas,  The,   163. 

Old  Man-Afraid-of-his-Horses,  125,  126,  131, 

137,   165. 
Old  Smoke,  428. 
Omahas,  The,  171. 
Oratory,  Indian,  57. 
Osages,  The,  170. 
Otoes,  The,   170. 
Ottawas,  The,  280. 
Overland  Stage,  The,  416. 

Packing  Animals,  lud. 

Pah  Utes,  The,  205. 

Painting  Faces  and  Bodies,  85. 

Palooses,  The,  290. 

Papagos,  The,  198,  264. 

Pawnees,  The,  267. 

Pend  d'Oreilles,  The,  231. 

Peorias,   The,   279. 

Piegans,   The,  218,   221-2. 

Pike,  Zebuion  N.,  400. 

Pimas,  The,  264. 

Pi  Utes,  The,  206. 

Poncas,  The,  169. 

Pony  Express,  The,  422. 

Pottawatomies,  The,  280. 

Prairie  Schooner,  402. 

Prayer,  Mode  of,  48. 

Quapas,  The,  315. 


INDEX. 


479 


Rain-in-the-Face,  366,  370. 

Red-Cloud,   64,   163. 

Red-Horse.  374. 

Reptiles,  443. 

Road  Agents,  418. 

Rocky  Mountain  Fur  Co.,  394. 

Rouges,  The,  307. 

Root  Diggers,  The,  211. 

Sans    Arcs,   The,   315. 
Santees,  The,  315. 
Sacs  and  Foxes,  The,  280. 
Salish,  The,  319. 
Scalping,   59. 
Santanta,  336,  339. 
Scalp  Dance,  The,  334. 
Scalp  Lock.  The,  61 
Semino  es,  The,  282. 
Sham   Battles,   122. 
Shahaptin,  The,  290. 
Shield.  Indian,  52. 
Short  Ribs.    139. 
Shoshonees,  The,  313. 
Sign  Language,  The,   108. 
Sign  Reading,  76. 
Singing  Bear,  Chief,   162. 
Sioux  Nation,  The,   136,  314. 
Smokers  and  Smoking,  63. 
Snake  Dance,  The,  340. 
Snake  Indians,  The,  207. 
Sisseton,  The,  315. 
Sioux  Nation,  The.  136. 
Small  Pox  Ravages,  46,  219. 
Sitting  Bull,  365,  370,  372,  384. 
Snake  Indians,  207. 
Snake  Dance,  340. 
Snow  Shoes,  116. 
Snow  Shoe  Dance,  278. 
Southern  Indians.  The,  312. 
Southwest  Fur  Co.,  390. 
Spokanes,  The,  307,  309. 
Slade,  Alfred,  420. 
Spotted  Tail,  129. 


Steptoe,  Col.,  473. 
Stampede,   414. 
Striking  the  Post,  278. 
Surches,  The,  218. 
Sun  Dance,  The,  323. 

Tamaronas,  The,  279. 

Tanning,   101. 

Telegraph  Overland,  The,  428. 

Tesson,  Joe,   161. 

Teton  Sioux,  The.  173. 

Tonkaways,  The,  259. 

Trappers,   The,  391. 

Travois,  105. 

Trooper  in  Battle,  51,  406. 

Uncpapas,  The,  166. 

Umatillas,  The,  290,  307. 

Umfreville,  Edward,  396,  403,  413,  415. 

Upsoruka,  The,  01  Crows,  224. 

Utes,  The,  200. 

Vanderburgh,  Henry,  394. 
Various  Tribes,  321. 

Wacoes,  The,  281. 

Wagon  Train,  404. 

Walla-Wallas,  The,  290,  302,  307. 

War  Dance,  The,  336. 

War  Parties,  48. 

Weapons,  Indian,  118. 

V.  hi  e  Antelo  e,  245. 

Wichitas,  The,  268,  273. 

WTild   Animals.  443. 

Wild  Horses,  430. 

Winnebagoes,  The,  107. 

Young  Man-Afraid-of-his-Horses,   138. 
Yankton  Sioux,  The,  164. 
Yellow  Hand,  Chief,  216. 
Yampais,  The,  321. 

Zunis,  The,  262. 


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